\input texinfo @c -*-texinfo-*- @c %**start of header @setfilename gcc.info @c @setfilename usegcc.info @c @setfilename portgcc.info @c To produce the full manual, use the "gcc.info" setfilename, and @c make sure the following do NOT begin with '@c' (and the @clear lines DO) @set INTERNALS @set USING @c To produce a user-only manual, use the "usegcc.info" setfilename, and @c make sure the following does NOT begin with '@c': @c @clear INTERNALS @c To produce a porter-only manual, use the "portgcc.info" setfilename, @c and make sure the following does NOT begin with '@c': @c @clear USING @c (For FSF printing, turn on smallbook, comment out finalout below; @c that is all that is needed.) @c 6/27/96 FSF DO wants smallbook fmt for 1st bound edition. @c @smallbook @c i also commented out the finalout command, so if there *are* any @c overfulls, you'll (hopefully) see the rectangle in the right hand @c margin. -mew 15june93 @c @finalout @c NOTE: checks/things to do: @c @c -have bob do a search in all seven files for "mew" (ideally --mew, @c but i may have forgotten the occasional "--"..). @c Just checked... all have `--'! Bob 22Jul96 @c Use this to search: grep -n '\-\-mew' *.texi @c -item/itemx, text after all (sub/sub)section titles, etc.. @c -consider putting the lists of options on pp 17--> etc in columns or @c some such. @c -spellcheck @c -continuity of phrasing; ie, bit-field vs bitfield in rtl.texi @c -overfulls. do a search for "mew" in the files, and you will see @c overfulls that i noted but could not deal with. @c -have to add text: beginning of chapter 8 @c @c anything else? --mew 10feb93 @ifset INTERNALS @ifset USING @settitle Using and Porting GNU CC @end ifset @end ifset @c seems reasonable to assume at least one of INTERNALS or USING is set... @ifclear INTERNALS @settitle Using GNU CC @end ifclear @ifclear USING @settitle Porting GNU CC @end ifclear @syncodeindex fn cp @syncodeindex vr cp @c %**end of header @c Use with @@smallbook. @c Cause even numbered pages to be printed on the left hand side of @c the page and odd numbered pages to be printed on the right hand @c side of the page. Using this, you can print on both sides of a @c sheet of paper and have the text on the same part of the sheet. @c The text on right hand pages is pushed towards the right hand @c margin and the text on left hand pages is pushed toward the left @c hand margin. @c (To provide the reverse effect, set bindingoffset to -0.75in.) @c @tex @c \global\bindingoffset=0.75in @c \global\normaloffset =0.75in @c @end tex @ifinfo @dircategory Programming @direntry * gcc: (gcc). The GNU C compiler. @end direntry @ifset INTERNALS @ifset USING This file documents the use and the internals of the GNU compiler. @end ifset @end ifset @ifclear USING This file documents the internals of the GNU compiler. @end ifclear @ifclear INTERNALS This file documents the use of the GNU compiler. @end ifclear Published by the Free Software Foundation 59 Temple Place - Suite 330 Boston, MA 02111-1307 USA Copyright (C) 1988, 1989, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998 Free Software Foundation, Inc. Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies. @ignore Permission is granted to process this file through Tex and print the results, provided the printed document carries copying permission notice identical to this one except for the removal of this paragraph (this paragraph not being relevant to the printed manual). @end ignore Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also that the sections entitled ``GNU General Public License'' and ``Funding for Free Software'' are included exactly as in the original, and provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this one. Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions, except that the sections entitled ``GNU General Public License'' and ``Funding for Free Software'', and this permission notice, may be included in translations approved by the Free Software Foundation instead of in the original English. @end ifinfo @setchapternewpage odd @c @finalout @titlepage @ifset INTERNALS @ifset USING @center @titlefont{Using and Porting GNU CC} @end ifset @end ifset @ifclear INTERNALS @title Using GNU CC @end ifclear @ifclear USING @title Porting GNU CC @end ifclear @sp 2 @center Richard M. Stallman @sp 3 @center Last updated 16 March 1998 @sp 1 @c The version number appears five times more in this file. @center for egcs-1.1 @page @vskip 0pt plus 1filll Copyright @copyright{} 1988, 89, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 98 Free Software Foundation, Inc. @sp 2 For EGCS Version 1.0@* @sp 1 Published by the Free Software Foundation @* 59 Temple Place - Suite 330@* Boston, MA 02111-1307, USA@* Last printed April, 1998.@* Printed copies are available for $50 each.@* ISBN 1-882114-37-X @sp 1 Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies. Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also that the sections entitled ``GNU General Public License'' and ``Funding for Free Software'' are included exactly as in the original, and provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this one. Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions, except that the sections entitled ``GNU General Public License'' and ``Funding for Free Software'', and this permission notice, may be included in translations approved by the Free Software Foundation instead of in the original English. @end titlepage @page @ifinfo @node Top, G++ and GCC,, (DIR) @top Introduction @cindex introduction @ifset INTERNALS @ifset USING This manual documents how to run, install and port the GNU compiler, as well as its new features and incompatibilities, and how to report bugs. It corresponds to EGCS version 1.0. @end ifset @end ifset @ifclear INTERNALS This manual documents how to run and install the GNU compiler, as well as its new features and incompatibilities, and how to report bugs. It corresponds to EGCS version 1.0. @end ifclear @ifclear USING This manual documents how to port the GNU compiler, as well as its new features and incompatibilities, and how to report bugs. It corresponds to EGCS version 1.0. @end ifclear @end ifinfo @menu @ifset USING * G++ and GCC:: You can compile C or C++ programs. * Invoking GCC:: Command options supported by @samp{gcc}. * Installation:: How to configure, compile and install GNU CC. * C Extensions:: GNU extensions to the C language family. * C++ Extensions:: GNU extensions to the C++ language. * Gcov:: gcov: a GNU CC test coverage program. * Trouble:: If you have trouble installing GNU CC. * Bugs:: How, why and where to report bugs. * Service:: How to find suppliers of support for GNU CC. * Contributing:: How to contribute to testing and developing GNU CC. * VMS:: Using GNU CC on VMS. @end ifset @ifset INTERNALS * Portability:: Goals of GNU CC's portability features. * Interface:: Function-call interface of GNU CC output. * Passes:: Order of passes, what they do, and what each file is for. * RTL:: The intermediate representation that most passes work on. * Machine Desc:: How to write machine description instruction patterns. * Target Macros:: How to write the machine description C macros. * Config:: Writing the @file{xm-@var{machine}.h} file. * Fragments:: Writing the @file{t-@var{target}} and @file{x-@var{host}} files. @end ifset * Funding:: How to help assure funding for free software. * GNU/Linux:: Linux and the GNU Project * Copying:: GNU General Public License says how you can copy and share GNU CC. * Contributors:: People who have contributed to GNU CC. * Index:: Index of concepts and symbol names. @end menu @ifset USING @node G++ and GCC @chapter Compile C, C++, or Objective C @cindex Objective C The C, C++, and Objective C versions of the compiler are integrated; the GNU C compiler can compile programs written in C, C++, or Objective C. @cindex GCC ``GCC'' is a common shorthand term for the GNU C compiler. This is both the most general name for the compiler, and the name used when the emphasis is on compiling C programs. @cindex C++ @cindex G++ When referring to C++ compilation, it is usual to call the compiler ``G++''. Since there is only one compiler, it is also accurate to call it ``GCC'' no matter what the language context; however, the term ``G++'' is more useful when the emphasis is on compiling C++ programs. We use the name ``GNU CC'' to refer to the compilation system as a whole, and more specifically to the language-independent part of the compiler. For example, we refer to the optimization options as affecting the behavior of ``GNU CC'' or sometimes just ``the compiler''. Front ends for other languages, such as Ada 9X, Fortran, Modula-3, and Pascal, are under development. These front-ends, like that for C++, are built in subdirectories of GNU CC and link to it. The result is an integrated compiler that can compile programs written in C, C++, Objective C, or any of the languages for which you have installed front ends. In this manual, we only discuss the options for the C, Objective-C, and C++ compilers and those of the GNU CC core. Consult the documentation of the other front ends for the options to use when compiling programs written in other languages. @cindex compiler compared to C++ preprocessor @cindex intermediate C version, nonexistent @cindex C intermediate output, nonexistent G++ is a @emph{compiler}, not merely a preprocessor. G++ builds object code directly from your C++ program source. There is no intermediate C version of the program. (By contrast, for example, some other implementations use a program that generates a C program from your C++ source.) Avoiding an intermediate C representation of the program means that you get better object code, and better debugging information. The GNU debugger, GDB, works with this information in the object code to give you comprehensive C++ source-level editing capabilities (@pxref{C,,C and C++,gdb.info, Debugging with GDB}). @c FIXME! Someone who knows something about Objective C ought to put in @c a paragraph or two about it here, and move the index entry down when @c there is more to point to than the general mention in the 1st par. @include invoke.texi @include install.texi @include extend.texi @include gcov.texi @node Trouble @chapter Known Causes of Trouble with GNU CC @cindex bugs, known @cindex installation trouble @cindex known causes of trouble This section describes known problems that affect users of GNU CC. Most of these are not GNU CC bugs per se---if they were, we would fix them. But the result for a user may be like the result of a bug. Some of these problems are due to bugs in other software, some are missing features that are too much work to add, and some are places where people's opinions differ as to what is best. @menu * Actual Bugs:: Bugs we will fix later. * Installation Problems:: Problems that manifest when you install GNU CC. * Cross-Compiler Problems:: Common problems of cross compiling with GNU CC. * Interoperation:: Problems using GNU CC with other compilers, and with certain linkers, assemblers and debuggers. * External Bugs:: Problems compiling certain programs. * Incompatibilities:: GNU CC is incompatible with traditional C. * Fixed Headers:: GNU C uses corrected versions of system header files. This is necessary, but doesn't always work smoothly. * Standard Libraries:: GNU C uses the system C library, which might not be compliant with the ISO/ANSI C standard. * Disappointments:: Regrettable things we can't change, but not quite bugs. * C++ Misunderstandings:: Common misunderstandings with GNU C++. * Protoize Caveats:: Things to watch out for when using @code{protoize}. * Non-bugs:: Things we think are right, but some others disagree. * Warnings and Errors:: Which problems in your code get warnings, and which get errors. @end menu @node Actual Bugs @section Actual Bugs We Haven't Fixed Yet @itemize @bullet @item The @code{fixincludes} script interacts badly with automounters; if the directory of system header files is automounted, it tends to be unmounted while @code{fixincludes} is running. This would seem to be a bug in the automounter. We don't know any good way to work around it. @item The @code{fixproto} script will sometimes add prototypes for the @code{sigsetjmp} and @code{siglongjmp} functions that reference the @code{jmp_buf} type before that type is defined. To work around this, edit the offending file and place the typedef in front of the prototypes. @item There are several obscure case of mis-using struct, union, and enum tags that are not detected as errors by the compiler. @item When @samp{-pedantic-errors} is specified, GNU C will incorrectly give an error message when a function name is specified in an expression involving the comma operator. @item Loop unrolling doesn't work properly for certain C++ programs. This is a bug in the C++ front end. It sometimes emits incorrect debug info, and the loop unrolling code is unable to recover from this error. @end itemize @node Installation Problems @section Installation Problems This is a list of problems (and some apparent problems which don't really mean anything is wrong) that show up during installation of GNU CC. @itemize @bullet @item On certain systems, defining certain environment variables such as @code{CC} can interfere with the functioning of @code{make}. @item If you encounter seemingly strange errors when trying to build the compiler in a directory other than the source directory, it could be because you have previously configured the compiler in the source directory. Make sure you have done all the necessary preparations. @xref{Other Dir}. @item If you build GNU CC on a BSD system using a directory stored in a System V file system, problems may occur in running @code{fixincludes} if the System V file system doesn't support symbolic links. These problems result in a failure to fix the declaration of @code{size_t} in @file{sys/types.h}. If you find that @code{size_t} is a signed type and that type mismatches occur, this could be the cause. The solution is not to use such a directory for building GNU CC. @item In previous versions of GNU CC, the @code{gcc} driver program looked for @code{as} and @code{ld} in various places; for example, in files beginning with @file{/usr/local/lib/gcc-}. GNU CC version 2 looks for them in the directory @file{/usr/local/lib/gcc-lib/@var{target}/@var{version}}. Thus, to use a version of @code{as} or @code{ld} that is not the system default, for example @code{gas} or GNU @code{ld}, you must put them in that directory (or make links to them from that directory). @item Some commands executed when making the compiler may fail (return a non-zero status) and be ignored by @code{make}. These failures, which are often due to files that were not found, are expected, and can safely be ignored. @item It is normal to have warnings in compiling certain files about unreachable code and about enumeration type clashes. These files' names begin with @samp{insn-}. Also, @file{real.c} may get some warnings that you can ignore. @item Sometimes @code{make} recompiles parts of the compiler when installing the compiler. In one case, this was traced down to a bug in @code{make}. Either ignore the problem or switch to GNU Make. @item If you have installed a program known as purify, you may find that it causes errors while linking @code{enquire}, which is part of building GNU CC. The fix is to get rid of the file @code{real-ld} which purify installs---so that GNU CC won't try to use it. @item On GNU/Linux SLS 1.01, there is a problem with @file{libc.a}: it does not contain the obstack functions. However, GNU CC assumes that the obstack functions are in @file{libc.a} when it is the GNU C library. To work around this problem, change the @code{__GNU_LIBRARY__} conditional around line 31 to @samp{#if 1}. @item On some 386 systems, building the compiler never finishes because @code{enquire} hangs due to a hardware problem in the motherboard---it reports floating point exceptions to the kernel incorrectly. You can install GNU CC except for @file{float.h} by patching out the command to run @code{enquire}. You may also be able to fix the problem for real by getting a replacement motherboard. This problem was observed in Revision E of the Micronics motherboard, and is fixed in Revision F. It has also been observed in the MYLEX MXA-33 motherboard. If you encounter this problem, you may also want to consider removing the FPU from the socket during the compilation. Alternatively, if you are running SCO Unix, you can reboot and force the FPU to be ignored. To do this, type @samp{hd(40)unix auto ignorefpu}. @item On some 386 systems, GNU CC crashes trying to compile @file{enquire.c}. This happens on machines that don't have a 387 FPU chip. On 386 machines, the system kernel is supposed to emulate the 387 when you don't have one. The crash is due to a bug in the emulator. One of these systems is the Unix from Interactive Systems: 386/ix. On this system, an alternate emulator is provided, and it does work. To use it, execute this command as super-user: @example ln /etc/emulator.rel1 /etc/emulator @end example @noindent and then reboot the system. (The default emulator file remains present under the name @file{emulator.dflt}.) Try using @file{/etc/emulator.att}, if you have such a problem on the SCO system. Another system which has this problem is Esix. We don't know whether it has an alternate emulator that works. On NetBSD 0.8, a similar problem manifests itself as these error messages: @example enquire.c: In function `fprop': enquire.c:2328: floating overflow @end example @item On SCO systems, when compiling GNU CC with the system's compiler, do not use @samp{-O}. Some versions of the system's compiler miscompile GNU CC with @samp{-O}. @cindex @code{genflags}, crash on Sun 4 @item Sometimes on a Sun 4 you may observe a crash in the program @code{genflags} or @code{genoutput} while building GNU CC. This is said to be due to a bug in @code{sh}. You can probably get around it by running @code{genflags} or @code{genoutput} manually and then retrying the @code{make}. @item On Solaris 2, executables of GNU CC version 2.0.2 are commonly available, but they have a bug that shows up when compiling current versions of GNU CC: undefined symbol errors occur during assembly if you use @samp{-g}. The solution is to compile the current version of GNU CC without @samp{-g}. That makes a working compiler which you can use to recompile with @samp{-g}. @item Solaris 2 comes with a number of optional OS packages. Some of these packages are needed to use GNU CC fully. If you did not install all optional packages when installing Solaris, you will need to verify that the packages that GNU CC needs are installed. To check whether an optional package is installed, use the @code{pkginfo} command. To add an optional package, use the @code{pkgadd} command. For further details, see the Solaris documentation. For Solaris 2.0 and 2.1, GNU CC needs six packages: @samp{SUNWarc}, @samp{SUNWbtool}, @samp{SUNWesu}, @samp{SUNWhea}, @samp{SUNWlibm}, and @samp{SUNWtoo}. For Solaris 2.2, GNU CC needs an additional seventh package: @samp{SUNWsprot}. @item On Solaris 2, trying to use the linker and other tools in @file{/usr/ucb} to install GNU CC has been observed to cause trouble. For example, the linker may hang indefinitely. The fix is to remove @file{/usr/ucb} from your @code{PATH}. @item If you use the 1.31 version of the MIPS assembler (such as was shipped with Ultrix 3.1), you will need to use the -fno-delayed-branch switch when optimizing floating point code. Otherwise, the assembler will complain when the GCC compiler fills a branch delay slot with a floating point instruction, such as @code{add.d}. @item If on a MIPS system you get an error message saying ``does not have gp sections for all it's [sic] sectons [sic]'', don't worry about it. This happens whenever you use GAS with the MIPS linker, but there is not really anything wrong, and it is okay to use the output file. You can stop such warnings by installing the GNU linker. It would be nice to extend GAS to produce the gp tables, but they are optional, and there should not be a warning about their absence. @item In Ultrix 4.0 on the MIPS machine, @file{stdio.h} does not work with GNU CC at all unless it has been fixed with @code{fixincludes}. This causes problems in building GNU CC. Once GNU CC is installed, the problems go away. To work around this problem, when making the stage 1 compiler, specify this option to Make: @example GCC_FOR_TARGET="./xgcc -B./ -I./include" @end example When making stage 2 and stage 3, specify this option: @example CFLAGS="-g -I./include" @end example @item Users have reported some problems with version 2.0 of the MIPS compiler tools that were shipped with Ultrix 4.1. Version 2.10 which came with Ultrix 4.2 seems to work fine. Users have also reported some problems with version 2.20 of the MIPS compiler tools that were shipped with RISC/os 4.x. The earlier version 2.11 seems to work fine. @item Some versions of the MIPS linker will issue an assertion failure when linking code that uses @code{alloca} against shared libraries on RISC-OS 5.0, and DEC's OSF/1 systems. This is a bug in the linker, that is supposed to be fixed in future revisions. To protect against this, GNU CC passes @samp{-non_shared} to the linker unless you pass an explicit @samp{-shared} or @samp{-call_shared} switch. @item On System V release 3, you may get this error message while linking: @smallexample ld fatal: failed to write symbol name @var{something} in strings table for file @var{whatever} @end smallexample This probably indicates that the disk is full or your ULIMIT won't allow the file to be as large as it needs to be. This problem can also result because the kernel parameter @code{MAXUMEM} is too small. If so, you must regenerate the kernel and make the value much larger. The default value is reported to be 1024; a value of 32768 is said to work. Smaller values may also work. @item On System V, if you get an error like this, @example /usr/local/lib/bison.simple: In function `yyparse': /usr/local/lib/bison.simple:625: virtual memory exhausted @end example @noindent that too indicates a problem with disk space, ULIMIT, or @code{MAXUMEM}. @item Current GNU CC versions probably do not work on version 2 of the NeXT operating system. @item On NeXTStep 3.0, the Objective C compiler does not work, due, apparently, to a kernel bug that it happens to trigger. This problem does not happen on 3.1. @item On the Tower models 4@var{n}0 and 6@var{n}0, by default a process is not allowed to have more than one megabyte of memory. GNU CC cannot compile itself (or many other programs) with @samp{-O} in that much memory. To solve this problem, reconfigure the kernel adding the following line to the configuration file: @smallexample MAXUMEM = 4096 @end smallexample @item On HP 9000 series 300 or 400 running HP-UX release 8.0, there is a bug in the assembler that must be fixed before GNU CC can be built. This bug manifests itself during the first stage of compilation, while building @file{libgcc2.a}: @smallexample _floatdisf cc1: warning: `-g' option not supported on this version of GCC cc1: warning: `-g1' option not supported on this version of GCC ./xgcc: Internal compiler error: program as got fatal signal 11 @end smallexample A patched version of the assembler is available by anonymous ftp from @code{altdorf.ai.mit.edu} as the file @file{archive/cph/hpux-8.0-assembler}. If you have HP software support, the patch can also be obtained directly from HP, as described in the following note: @quotation This is the patched assembler, to patch SR#1653-010439, where the assembler aborts on floating point constants. The bug is not really in the assembler, but in the shared library version of the function ``cvtnum(3c)''. The bug on ``cvtnum(3c)'' is SR#4701-078451. Anyway, the attached assembler uses the archive library version of ``cvtnum(3c)'' and thus does not exhibit the bug. @end quotation This patch is also known as PHCO_4484. @item On HP-UX version 8.05, but not on 8.07 or more recent versions, the @code{fixproto} shell script triggers a bug in the system shell. If you encounter this problem, upgrade your operating system or use BASH (the GNU shell) to run @code{fixproto}. @item Some versions of the Pyramid C compiler are reported to be unable to compile GNU CC. You must use an older version of GNU CC for bootstrapping. One indication of this problem is if you get a crash when GNU CC compiles the function @code{muldi3} in file @file{libgcc2.c}. You may be able to succeed by getting GNU CC version 1, installing it, and using it to compile GNU CC version 2. The bug in the Pyramid C compiler does not seem to affect GNU CC version 1. @item There may be similar problems on System V Release 3.1 on 386 systems. @item On the Intel Paragon (an i860 machine), if you are using operating system version 1.0, you will get warnings or errors about redefinition of @code{va_arg} when you build GNU CC. If this happens, then you need to link most programs with the library @file{iclib.a}. You must also modify @file{stdio.h} as follows: before the lines @example #if defined(__i860__) && !defined(_VA_LIST) #include @end example @noindent insert the line @example #if __PGC__ @end example @noindent and after the lines @example extern int vprintf(const char *, va_list ); extern int vsprintf(char *, const char *, va_list ); #endif @end example @noindent insert the line @example #endif /* __PGC__ */ @end example These problems don't exist in operating system version 1.1. @item On the Altos 3068, programs compiled with GNU CC won't work unless you fix a kernel bug. This happens using system versions V.2.2 1.0gT1 and V.2.2 1.0e and perhaps later versions as well. See the file @file{README.ALTOS}. @item You will get several sorts of compilation and linking errors on the we32k if you don't follow the special instructions. @xref{Configurations}. @item A bug in the HP-UX 8.05 (and earlier) shell will cause the fixproto program to report an error of the form: @example ./fixproto: sh internal 1K buffer overflow @end example To fix this, change the first line of the fixproto script to look like: @example #!/bin/ksh @end example @end itemize @node Cross-Compiler Problems @section Cross-Compiler Problems You may run into problems with cross compilation on certain machines, for several reasons. @itemize @bullet @item Cross compilation can run into trouble for certain machines because some target machines' assemblers require floating point numbers to be written as @emph{integer} constants in certain contexts. The compiler writes these integer constants by examining the floating point value as an integer and printing that integer, because this is simple to write and independent of the details of the floating point representation. But this does not work if the compiler is running on a different machine with an incompatible floating point format, or even a different byte-ordering. In addition, correct constant folding of floating point values requires representing them in the target machine's format. (The C standard does not quite require this, but in practice it is the only way to win.) It is now possible to overcome these problems by defining macros such as @code{REAL_VALUE_TYPE}. But doing so is a substantial amount of work for each target machine. @ifset INTERNALS @xref{Cross-compilation}. @end ifset @ifclear INTERNALS @xref{Cross-compilation,,Cross Compilation and Floating Point Format, gcc.info, Using and Porting GCC}. @end ifclear @item At present, the program @file{mips-tfile} which adds debug support to object files on MIPS systems does not work in a cross compile environment. @end itemize @node Interoperation @section Interoperation This section lists various difficulties encountered in using GNU C or GNU C++ together with other compilers or with the assemblers, linkers, libraries and debuggers on certain systems. @itemize @bullet @item Objective C does not work on the RS/6000. @item GNU C++ does not do name mangling in the same way as other C++ compilers. This means that object files compiled with one compiler cannot be used with another. This effect is intentional, to protect you from more subtle problems. Compilers differ as to many internal details of C++ implementation, including: how class instances are laid out, how multiple inheritance is implemented, and how virtual function calls are handled. If the name encoding were made the same, your programs would link against libraries provided from other compilers---but the programs would then crash when run. Incompatible libraries are then detected at link time, rather than at run time. @item Older GDB versions sometimes fail to read the output of GNU CC version 2. If you have trouble, get GDB version 4.4 or later. @item @cindex DBX DBX rejects some files produced by GNU CC, though it accepts similar constructs in output from PCC. Until someone can supply a coherent description of what is valid DBX input and what is not, there is nothing I can do about these problems. You are on your own. @item The GNU assembler (GAS) does not support PIC. To generate PIC code, you must use some other assembler, such as @file{/bin/as}. @item On some BSD systems, including some versions of Ultrix, use of profiling causes static variable destructors (currently used only in C++) not to be run. @item Use of @samp{-I/usr/include} may cause trouble. Many systems come with header files that won't work with GNU CC unless corrected by @code{fixincludes}. The corrected header files go in a new directory; GNU CC searches this directory before @file{/usr/include}. If you use @samp{-I/usr/include}, this tells GNU CC to search @file{/usr/include} earlier on, before the corrected headers. The result is that you get the uncorrected header files. Instead, you should use these options (when compiling C programs): @smallexample -I/usr/local/lib/gcc-lib/@var{target}/@var{version}/include -I/usr/include @end smallexample For C++ programs, GNU CC also uses a special directory that defines C++ interfaces to standard C subroutines. This directory is meant to be searched @emph{before} other standard include directories, so that it takes precedence. If you are compiling C++ programs and specifying include directories explicitly, use this option first, then the two options above: @example -I/usr/local/lib/g++-include @end example @ignore @cindex @code{vfork}, for the Sun-4 @item There is a bug in @code{vfork} on the Sun-4 which causes the registers of the child process to clobber those of the parent. Because of this, programs that call @code{vfork} are likely to lose when compiled optimized with GNU CC when the child code alters registers which contain C variables in the parent. This affects variables which are live in the parent across the call to @code{vfork}. If you encounter this, you can work around the problem by declaring variables @code{volatile} in the function that calls @code{vfork}, until the problem goes away, or by not declaring them @code{register} and not using @samp{-O} for those source files. @end ignore @item On some SGI systems, when you use @samp{-lgl_s} as an option, it gets translated magically to @samp{-lgl_s -lX11_s -lc_s}. Naturally, this does not happen when you use GNU CC. You must specify all three options explicitly. @item On a Sparc, GNU CC aligns all values of type @code{double} on an 8-byte boundary, and it expects every @code{double} to be so aligned. The Sun compiler usually gives @code{double} values 8-byte alignment, with one exception: function arguments of type @code{double} may not be aligned. As a result, if a function compiled with Sun CC takes the address of an argument of type @code{double} and passes this pointer of type @code{double *} to a function compiled with GNU CC, dereferencing the pointer may cause a fatal signal. One way to solve this problem is to compile your entire program with GNU CC. Another solution is to modify the function that is compiled with Sun CC to copy the argument into a local variable; local variables are always properly aligned. A third solution is to modify the function that uses the pointer to dereference it via the following function @code{access_double} instead of directly with @samp{*}: @smallexample inline double access_double (double *unaligned_ptr) @{ union d2i @{ double d; int i[2]; @}; union d2i *p = (union d2i *) unaligned_ptr; union d2i u; u.i[0] = p->i[0]; u.i[1] = p->i[1]; return u.d; @} @end smallexample @noindent Storing into the pointer can be done likewise with the same union. @item On Solaris, the @code{malloc} function in the @file{libmalloc.a} library may allocate memory that is only 4 byte aligned. Since GNU CC on the Sparc assumes that doubles are 8 byte aligned, this may result in a fatal signal if doubles are stored in memory allocated by the @file{libmalloc.a} library. The solution is to not use the @file{libmalloc.a} library. Use instead @code{malloc} and related functions from @file{libc.a}; they do not have this problem. @item Sun forgot to include a static version of @file{libdl.a} with some versions of SunOS (mainly 4.1). This results in undefined symbols when linking static binaries (that is, if you use @samp{-static}). If you see undefined symbols @code{_dlclose}, @code{_dlsym} or @code{_dlopen} when linking, compile and link against the file @file{mit/util/misc/dlsym.c} from the MIT version of X windows. @item The 128-bit long double format that the Sparc port supports currently works by using the architecturally defined quad-word floating point instructions. Since there is no hardware that supports these instructions they must be emulated by the operating system. Long doubles do not work in Sun OS versions 4.0.3 and earlier, because the kernel emulator uses an obsolete and incompatible format. Long doubles do not work in Sun OS version 4.1.1 due to a problem in a Sun library. Long doubles do work on Sun OS versions 4.1.2 and higher, but GNU CC does not enable them by default. Long doubles appear to work in Sun OS 5.x (Solaris 2.x). @item On HP-UX version 9.01 on the HP PA, the HP compiler @code{cc} does not compile GNU CC correctly. We do not yet know why. However, GNU CC compiled on earlier HP-UX versions works properly on HP-UX 9.01 and can compile itself properly on 9.01. @item On the HP PA machine, ADB sometimes fails to work on functions compiled with GNU CC. Specifically, it fails to work on functions that use @code{alloca} or variable-size arrays. This is because GNU CC doesn't generate HP-UX unwind descriptors for such functions. It may even be impossible to generate them. @item Debugging (@samp{-g}) is not supported on the HP PA machine, unless you use the preliminary GNU tools (@pxref{Installation}). @item Taking the address of a label may generate errors from the HP-UX PA assembler. GAS for the PA does not have this problem. @item Using floating point parameters for indirect calls to static functions will not work when using the HP assembler. There simply is no way for GCC to specify what registers hold arguments for static functions when using the HP assembler. GAS for the PA does not have this problem. @item In extremely rare cases involving some very large functions you may receive errors from the HP linker complaining about an out of bounds unconditional branch offset. This used to occur more often in previous versions of GNU CC, but is now exceptionally rare. If you should run into it, you can work around by making your function smaller. @item GNU CC compiled code sometimes emits warnings from the HP-UX assembler of the form: @smallexample (warning) Use of GR3 when frame >= 8192 may cause conflict. @end smallexample These warnings are harmless and can be safely ignored. @item The current version of the assembler (@file{/bin/as}) for the RS/6000 has certain problems that prevent the @samp{-g} option in GCC from working. Note that @file{Makefile.in} uses @samp{-g} by default when compiling @file{libgcc2.c}. IBM has produced a fixed version of the assembler. The upgraded assembler unfortunately was not included in any of the AIX 3.2 update PTF releases (3.2.2, 3.2.3, or 3.2.3e). Users of AIX 3.1 should request PTF U403044 from IBM and users of AIX 3.2 should request PTF U416277. See the file @file{README.RS6000} for more details on these updates. You can test for the presense of a fixed assembler by using the command @smallexample as -u < /dev/null @end smallexample @noindent If the command exits normally, the assembler fix already is installed. If the assembler complains that "-u" is an unknown flag, you need to order the fix. @item On the IBM RS/6000, compiling code of the form @smallexample extern int foo; @dots{} foo @dots{} static int foo; @end smallexample @noindent will cause the linker to report an undefined symbol @code{foo}. Although this behavior differs from most other systems, it is not a bug because redefining an @code{extern} variable as @code{static} is undefined in ANSI C. @item AIX on the RS/6000 provides support (NLS) for environments outside of the United States. Compilers and assemblers use NLS to support locale-specific representations of various objects including floating-point numbers ("." vs "," for separating decimal fractions). There have been problems reported where the library linked with GCC does not produce the same floating-point formats that the assembler accepts. If you have this problem, set the LANG environment variable to "C" or "En_US". @item Even if you specify @samp{-fdollars-in-identifiers}, you cannot successfully use @samp{$} in identifiers on the RS/6000 due to a restriction in the IBM assembler. GAS supports these identifiers. @item On the RS/6000, XLC version 1.3.0.0 will miscompile @file{jump.c}. XLC version 1.3.0.1 or later fixes this problem. You can obtain XLC-1.3.0.2 by requesting PTF 421749 from IBM. @item There is an assembler bug in versions of DG/UX prior to 5.4.2.01 that occurs when the @samp{fldcr} instruction is used. GNU CC uses @samp{fldcr} on the 88100 to serialize volatile memory references. Use the option @samp{-mno-serialize-volatile} if your version of the assembler has this bug. @item On VMS, GAS versions 1.38.1 and earlier may cause spurious warning messages from the linker. These warning messages complain of mismatched psect attributes. You can ignore them. @xref{VMS Install}. @item On NewsOS version 3, if you include both of the files @file{stddef.h} and @file{sys/types.h}, you get an error because there are two typedefs of @code{size_t}. You should change @file{sys/types.h} by adding these lines around the definition of @code{size_t}: @smallexample #ifndef _SIZE_T #define _SIZE_T @var{actual typedef here} #endif @end smallexample @cindex Alliant @item On the Alliant, the system's own convention for returning structures and unions is unusual, and is not compatible with GNU CC no matter what options are used. @cindex RT PC @cindex IBM RT PC @item On the IBM RT PC, the MetaWare HighC compiler (hc) uses a different convention for structure and union returning. Use the option @samp{-mhc-struct-return} to tell GNU CC to use a convention compatible with it. @cindex Vax calling convention @cindex Ultrix calling convention @item On Ultrix, the Fortran compiler expects registers 2 through 5 to be saved by function calls. However, the C compiler uses conventions compatible with BSD Unix: registers 2 through 5 may be clobbered by function calls. GNU CC uses the same convention as the Ultrix C compiler. You can use these options to produce code compatible with the Fortran compiler: @smallexample -fcall-saved-r2 -fcall-saved-r3 -fcall-saved-r4 -fcall-saved-r5 @end smallexample @item On the WE32k, you may find that programs compiled with GNU CC do not work with the standard shared C library. You may need to link with the ordinary C compiler. If you do so, you must specify the following options: @smallexample -L/usr/local/lib/gcc-lib/we32k-att-sysv/2.8.1 -lgcc -lc_s @end smallexample The first specifies where to find the library @file{libgcc.a} specified with the @samp{-lgcc} option. GNU CC does linking by invoking @code{ld}, just as @code{cc} does, and there is no reason why it @emph{should} matter which compilation program you use to invoke @code{ld}. If someone tracks this problem down, it can probably be fixed easily. @item On the Alpha, you may get assembler errors about invalid syntax as a result of floating point constants. This is due to a bug in the C library functions @code{ecvt}, @code{fcvt} and @code{gcvt}. Given valid floating point numbers, they sometimes print @samp{NaN}. @item On Irix 4.0.5F (and perhaps in some other versions), an assembler bug sometimes reorders instructions incorrectly when optimization is turned on. If you think this may be happening to you, try using the GNU assembler; GAS version 2.1 supports ECOFF on Irix. Or use the @samp{-noasmopt} option when you compile GNU CC with itself, and then again when you compile your program. (This is a temporary kludge to turn off assembler optimization on Irix.) If this proves to be what you need, edit the assembler spec in the file @file{specs} so that it unconditionally passes @samp{-O0} to the assembler, and never passes @samp{-O2} or @samp{-O3}. @end itemize @node External Bugs @section Problems Compiling Certain Programs @c prevent bad page break with this line Certain programs have problems compiling. @itemize @bullet @item Parse errors may occur compiling X11 on a Decstation running Ultrix 4.2 because of problems in DEC's versions of the X11 header files @file{X11/Xlib.h} and @file{X11/Xutil.h}. People recommend adding @samp{-I/usr/include/mit} to use the MIT versions of the header files, using the @samp{-traditional} switch to turn off ANSI C, or fixing the header files by adding this: @example #ifdef __STDC__ #define NeedFunctionPrototypes 0 #endif @end example @item If you have trouble compiling Perl on a SunOS 4 system, it may be because Perl specifies @samp{-I/usr/ucbinclude}. This accesses the unfixed header files. Perl specifies the options @example -traditional -Dvolatile=__volatile__ -I/usr/include/sun -I/usr/ucbinclude -fpcc-struct-return @end example @noindent most of which are unnecessary with GCC 2.4.5 and newer versions. You can make a properly working Perl by setting @code{ccflags} to @samp{-fwritable-strings} (implied by the @samp{-traditional} in the original options) and @code{cppflags} to empty in @file{config.sh}, then typing @samp{./doSH; make depend; make}. @item On various 386 Unix systems derived from System V, including SCO, ISC, and ESIX, you may get error messages about running out of virtual memory while compiling certain programs. You can prevent this problem by linking GNU CC with the GNU malloc (which thus replaces the malloc that comes with the system). GNU malloc is available as a separate package, and also in the file @file{src/gmalloc.c} in the GNU Emacs 19 distribution. If you have installed GNU malloc as a separate library package, use this option when you relink GNU CC: @example MALLOC=/usr/local/lib/libgmalloc.a @end example Alternatively, if you have compiled @file{gmalloc.c} from Emacs 19, copy the object file to @file{gmalloc.o} and use this option when you relink GNU CC: @example MALLOC=gmalloc.o @end example @end itemize @node Incompatibilities @section Incompatibilities of GNU CC @cindex incompatibilities of GNU CC There are several noteworthy incompatibilities between GNU C and most existing (non-ANSI) versions of C. The @samp{-traditional} option eliminates many of these incompatibilities, @emph{but not all}, by telling GNU C to behave like the other C compilers. @itemize @bullet @cindex string constants @cindex read-only strings @cindex shared strings @item GNU CC normally makes string constants read-only. If several identical-looking string constants are used, GNU CC stores only one copy of the string. @cindex @code{mktemp}, and constant strings One consequence is that you cannot call @code{mktemp} with a string constant argument. The function @code{mktemp} always alters the string its argument points to. @cindex @code{sscanf}, and constant strings @cindex @code{fscanf}, and constant strings @cindex @code{scanf}, and constant strings Another consequence is that @code{sscanf} does not work on some systems when passed a string constant as its format control string or input. This is because @code{sscanf} incorrectly tries to write into the string constant. Likewise @code{fscanf} and @code{scanf}. The best solution to these problems is to change the program to use @code{char}-array variables with initialization strings for these purposes instead of string constants. But if this is not possible, you can use the @samp{-fwritable-strings} flag, which directs GNU CC to handle string constants the same way most C compilers do. @samp{-traditional} also has this effect, among others. @item @code{-2147483648} is positive. This is because 2147483648 cannot fit in the type @code{int}, so (following the ANSI C rules) its data type is @code{unsigned long int}. Negating this value yields 2147483648 again. @item GNU CC does not substitute macro arguments when they appear inside of string constants. For example, the following macro in GNU CC @example #define foo(a) "a" @end example @noindent will produce output @code{"a"} regardless of what the argument @var{a} is. The @samp{-traditional} option directs GNU CC to handle such cases (among others) in the old-fashioned (non-ANSI) fashion. @cindex @code{setjmp} incompatibilities @cindex @code{longjmp} incompatibilities @item When you use @code{setjmp} and @code{longjmp}, the only automatic variables guaranteed to remain valid are those declared @code{volatile}. This is a consequence of automatic register allocation. Consider this function: @example jmp_buf j; foo () @{ int a, b; a = fun1 (); if (setjmp (j)) return a; a = fun2 (); /* @r{@code{longjmp (j)} may occur in @code{fun3}.} */ return a + fun3 (); @} @end example Here @code{a} may or may not be restored to its first value when the @code{longjmp} occurs. If @code{a} is allocated in a register, then its first value is restored; otherwise, it keeps the last value stored in it. If you use the @samp{-W} option with the @samp{-O} option, you will get a warning when GNU CC thinks such a problem might be possible. The @samp{-traditional} option directs GNU C to put variables in the stack by default, rather than in registers, in functions that call @code{setjmp}. This results in the behavior found in traditional C compilers. @item Programs that use preprocessing directives in the middle of macro arguments do not work with GNU CC. For example, a program like this will not work: @example foobar ( #define luser hack) @end example ANSI C does not permit such a construct. It would make sense to support it when @samp{-traditional} is used, but it is too much work to implement. @cindex external declaration scope @cindex scope of external declarations @cindex declaration scope @item Declarations of external variables and functions within a block apply only to the block containing the declaration. In other words, they have the same scope as any other declaration in the same place. In some other C compilers, a @code{extern} declaration affects all the rest of the file even if it happens within a block. The @samp{-traditional} option directs GNU C to treat all @code{extern} declarations as global, like traditional compilers. @item In traditional C, you can combine @code{long}, etc., with a typedef name, as shown here: @example typedef int foo; typedef long foo bar; @end example In ANSI C, this is not allowed: @code{long} and other type modifiers require an explicit @code{int}. Because this criterion is expressed by Bison grammar rules rather than C code, the @samp{-traditional} flag cannot alter it. @cindex typedef names as function parameters @item PCC allows typedef names to be used as function parameters. The difficulty described immediately above applies here too. @cindex whitespace @item PCC allows whitespace in the middle of compound assignment operators such as @samp{+=}. GNU CC, following the ANSI standard, does not allow this. The difficulty described immediately above applies here too. @cindex apostrophes @cindex ' @item GNU CC complains about unterminated character constants inside of preprocessing conditionals that fail. Some programs have English comments enclosed in conditionals that are guaranteed to fail; if these comments contain apostrophes, GNU CC will probably report an error. For example, this code would produce an error: @example #if 0 You can't expect this to work. #endif @end example The best solution to such a problem is to put the text into an actual C comment delimited by @samp{/*@dots{}*/}. However, @samp{-traditional} suppresses these error messages. @item Many user programs contain the declaration @samp{long time ();}. In the past, the system header files on many systems did not actually declare @code{time}, so it did not matter what type your program declared it to return. But in systems with ANSI C headers, @code{time} is declared to return @code{time_t}, and if that is not the same as @code{long}, then @samp{long time ();} is erroneous. The solution is to change your program to use @code{time_t} as the return type of @code{time}. @cindex @code{float} as function value type @item When compiling functions that return @code{float}, PCC converts it to a double. GNU CC actually returns a @code{float}. If you are concerned with PCC compatibility, you should declare your functions to return @code{double}; you might as well say what you mean. @cindex structures @cindex unions @item When compiling functions that return structures or unions, GNU CC output code normally uses a method different from that used on most versions of Unix. As a result, code compiled with GNU CC cannot call a structure-returning function compiled with PCC, and vice versa. The method used by GNU CC is as follows: a structure or union which is 1, 2, 4 or 8 bytes long is returned like a scalar. A structure or union with any other size is stored into an address supplied by the caller (usually in a special, fixed register, but on some machines it is passed on the stack). The machine-description macros @code{STRUCT_VALUE} and @code{STRUCT_INCOMING_VALUE} tell GNU CC where to pass this address. By contrast, PCC on most target machines returns structures and unions of any size by copying the data into an area of static storage, and then returning the address of that storage as if it were a pointer value. The caller must copy the data from that memory area to the place where the value is wanted. GNU CC does not use this method because it is slower and nonreentrant. On some newer machines, PCC uses a reentrant convention for all structure and union returning. GNU CC on most of these machines uses a compatible convention when returning structures and unions in memory, but still returns small structures and unions in registers. You can tell GNU CC to use a compatible convention for all structure and union returning with the option @samp{-fpcc-struct-return}. @cindex preprocessing tokens @cindex preprocessing numbers @item GNU C complains about program fragments such as @samp{0x74ae-0x4000} which appear to be two hexadecimal constants separated by the minus operator. Actually, this string is a single @dfn{preprocessing token}. Each such token must correspond to one token in C. Since this does not, GNU C prints an error message. Although it may appear obvious that what is meant is an operator and two values, the ANSI C standard specifically requires that this be treated as erroneous. A @dfn{preprocessing token} is a @dfn{preprocessing number} if it begins with a digit and is followed by letters, underscores, digits, periods and @samp{e+}, @samp{e-}, @samp{E+}, or @samp{E-} character sequences. To make the above program fragment valid, place whitespace in front of the minus sign. This whitespace will end the preprocessing number. @end itemize @node Fixed Headers @section Fixed Header Files GNU CC needs to install corrected versions of some system header files. This is because most target systems have some header files that won't work with GNU CC unless they are changed. Some have bugs, some are incompatible with ANSI C, and some depend on special features of other compilers. Installing GNU CC automatically creates and installs the fixed header files, by running a program called @code{fixincludes} (or for certain targets an alternative such as @code{fixinc.svr4}). Normally, you don't need to pay attention to this. But there are cases where it doesn't do the right thing automatically. @itemize @bullet @item If you update the system's header files, such as by installing a new system version, the fixed header files of GNU CC are not automatically updated. The easiest way to update them is to reinstall GNU CC. (If you want to be clever, look in the makefile and you can find a shortcut.) @item On some systems, in particular SunOS 4, header file directories contain machine-specific symbolic links in certain places. This makes it possible to share most of the header files among hosts running the same version of SunOS 4 on different machine models. The programs that fix the header files do not understand this special way of using symbolic links; therefore, the directory of fixed header files is good only for the machine model used to build it. In SunOS 4, only programs that look inside the kernel will notice the difference between machine models. Therefore, for most purposes, you need not be concerned about this. It is possible to make separate sets of fixed header files for the different machine models, and arrange a structure of symbolic links so as to use the proper set, but you'll have to do this by hand. @item On Lynxos, GNU CC by default does not fix the header files. This is because bugs in the shell cause the @code{fixincludes} script to fail. This means you will encounter problems due to bugs in the system header files. It may be no comfort that they aren't GNU CC's fault, but it does mean that there's nothing for us to do about them. @end itemize @node Standard Libraries @section Standard Libraries GNU CC by itself attempts to be what the ISO/ANSI C standard calls a @dfn{conforming freestanding implementation}. This means all ANSI C language features are available, as well as the contents of @file{float.h}, @file{limits.h}, @file{stdarg.h}, and @file{stddef.h}. The rest of the C library is supplied by the vendor of the operating system. If that C library doesn't conform to the C standards, then your programs might get warnings (especially when using @samp{-Wall}) that you don't expect. For example, the @code{sprintf} function on SunOS 4.1.3 returns @code{char *} while the C standard says that @code{sprintf} returns an @code{int}. The @code{fixincludes} program could make the prototype for this function match the Standard, but that would be wrong, since the function will still return @code{char *}. If you need a Standard compliant library, then you need to find one, as GNU CC does not provide one. The GNU C library (called @code{glibc}) has been ported to a number of operating systems, and provides ANSI/ISO, POSIX, BSD and SystemV compatibility. You could also ask your operating system vendor if newer libraries are available. @node Disappointments @section Disappointments and Misunderstandings These problems are perhaps regrettable, but we don't know any practical way around them. @itemize @bullet @item Certain local variables aren't recognized by debuggers when you compile with optimization. This occurs because sometimes GNU CC optimizes the variable out of existence. There is no way to tell the debugger how to compute the value such a variable ``would have had'', and it is not clear that would be desirable anyway. So GNU CC simply does not mention the eliminated variable when it writes debugging information. You have to expect a certain amount of disagreement between the executable and your source code, when you use optimization. @cindex conflicting types @cindex scope of declaration @item Users often think it is a bug when GNU CC reports an error for code like this: @example int foo (struct mumble *); struct mumble @{ @dots{} @}; int foo (struct mumble *x) @{ @dots{} @} @end example This code really is erroneous, because the scope of @code{struct mumble} in the prototype is limited to the argument list containing it. It does not refer to the @code{struct mumble} defined with file scope immediately below---they are two unrelated types with similar names in different scopes. But in the definition of @code{foo}, the file-scope type is used because that is available to be inherited. Thus, the definition and the prototype do not match, and you get an error. This behavior may seem silly, but it's what the ANSI standard specifies. It is easy enough for you to make your code work by moving the definition of @code{struct mumble} above the prototype. It's not worth being incompatible with ANSI C just to avoid an error for the example shown above. @item Accesses to bitfields even in volatile objects works by accessing larger objects, such as a byte or a word. You cannot rely on what size of object is accessed in order to read or write the bitfield; it may even vary for a given bitfield according to the precise usage. If you care about controlling the amount of memory that is accessed, use volatile but do not use bitfields. @item GNU CC comes with shell scripts to fix certain known problems in system header files. They install corrected copies of various header files in a special directory where only GNU CC will normally look for them. The scripts adapt to various systems by searching all the system header files for the problem cases that we know about. If new system header files are installed, nothing automatically arranges to update the corrected header files. You will have to reinstall GNU CC to fix the new header files. More specifically, go to the build directory and delete the files @file{stmp-fixinc} and @file{stmp-headers}, and the subdirectory @code{include}; then do @samp{make install} again. @item @cindex floating point precision On 68000 and x86 systems, for instance, you can get paradoxical results if you test the precise values of floating point numbers. For example, you can find that a floating point value which is not a NaN is not equal to itself. This results from the fact that the floating point registers hold a few more bits of precision than fit in a @code{double} in memory. Compiled code moves values between memory and floating point registers at its convenience, and moving them into memory truncates them. You can partially avoid this problem by using the @samp{-ffloat-store} option (@pxref{Optimize Options}). @item On the MIPS, variable argument functions using @file{varargs.h} cannot have a floating point value for the first argument. The reason for this is that in the absence of a prototype in scope, if the first argument is a floating point, it is passed in a floating point register, rather than an integer register. If the code is rewritten to use the ANSI standard @file{stdarg.h} method of variable arguments, and the prototype is in scope at the time of the call, everything will work fine. @item On the H8/300 and H8/300H, variable argument functions must be implemented using the ANSI standard @file{stdarg.h} method of variable arguments. Furthermore, calls to functions using @file{stdarg.h} variable arguments must have a prototype for the called function in scope at the time of the call. @end itemize @node C++ Misunderstandings @section Common Misunderstandings with GNU C++ @cindex misunderstandings in C++ @cindex surprises in C++ @cindex C++ misunderstandings C++ is a complex language and an evolving one, and its standard definition (the ISO C++ standard) was only recently completed. As a result, your C++ compiler may occasionally surprise you, even when its behavior is correct. This section discusses some areas that frequently give rise to questions of this sort. @menu * Static Definitions:: Static member declarations are not definitions * Temporaries:: Temporaries may vanish before you expect * Copy Assignment:: Copy Assignment operators copy virtual bases twice @end menu @node Static Definitions @subsection Declare @emph{and} Define Static Members @cindex C++ static data, declaring and defining @cindex static data in C++, declaring and defining @cindex declaring static data in C++ @cindex defining static data in C++ When a class has static data members, it is not enough to @emph{declare} the static member; you must also @emph{define} it. For example: @example class Foo @{ @dots{} void method(); static int bar; @}; @end example This declaration only establishes that the class @code{Foo} has an @code{int} named @code{Foo::bar}, and a member function named @code{Foo::method}. But you still need to define @emph{both} @code{method} and @code{bar} elsewhere. According to the draft ANSI standard, you must supply an initializer in one (and only one) source file, such as: @example int Foo::bar = 0; @end example Other C++ compilers may not correctly implement the standard behavior. As a result, when you switch to @code{g++} from one of these compilers, you may discover that a program that appeared to work correctly in fact does not conform to the standard: @code{g++} reports as undefined symbols any static data members that lack definitions. @node Temporaries @subsection Temporaries May Vanish Before You Expect @cindex temporaries, lifetime of @cindex portions of temporary objects, pointers to It is dangerous to use pointers or references to @emph{portions} of a temporary object. The compiler may very well delete the object before you expect it to, leaving a pointer to garbage. The most common place where this problem crops up is in classes like string classes, especially ones that define a conversion function to type @code{char *} or @code{const char *} -- which is one reason why the standard @code{string} class requires you to call the @code{c_str} member function. However, any class that returns a pointer to some internal structure is potentially subject to this problem. For example, a program may use a function @code{strfunc} that returns @code{string} objects, and another function @code{charfunc} that operates on pointers to @code{char}: @example string strfunc (); void charfunc (const char *); void f () @{ const char *p = strfunc().c_str(); ... charfunc (p); ... charfunc (p); @} @end example @noindent In this situation, it may seem reasonable to save a pointer to the C string returned by the @code{c_str} member function and use that rather than call @code{c_str} repeatedly. However, the temporary string created by the call to @code{strfunc} is destroyed after @code{p} is initialized, at which point @code{p} is left pointing to freed memory. Code like this may run successfully under some other compilers, particularly obsolete cfront-based compilers that delete temporaries along with normal local variables. However, the GNU C++ behavior is standard-conforming, so if your program depends on late destruction of temporaries it is not portable. The safe way to write such code is to give the temporary a name, which forces it to remain until the end of the scope of the name. For example: @example string& tmp = strfunc (); charfunc (tmp.c_str ()); @end example @node Copy Assignment @subsection Implicit Copy-Assignment for Virtual Bases When a base class is virtual, only one subobject of the base class belongs to each full object. Also, the constructors and destructors are invoked only once, and called from the most-derived class. However, such objects behave unspecified when being assigned. For example: @example struct Base@{ char *name; Base(char *n) : name(strdup(n))@{@} Base& operator= (const Base& other)@{ free (name); name = strdup (other.name); @} @}; struct A:virtual Base@{ int val; A():Base("A")@{@} @}; struct B:virtual Base@{ int bval; B():Base("B")@{@} @}; struct Derived:public A, public B@{ Derived():Base("Derived")@{@} @}; void func(Derived &d1, Derived &d2) @{ d1 = d2; @} @end example The C++ standard specifies that @samp{Base::Base} is only called once when constructing or copy-constructing a Derived object. It is unspecified whether @samp{Base::operator=} is called more than once when the implicit copy-assignment for Derived objects is invoked (as it is inside @samp{func} in the example). g++ implements the "intuitive" algorithm for copy-assignment: assign all direct bases, then assign all members. In that algorithm, the virtual base subobject can be encountered many times. In the example, copying proceeds in the following order: @samp{val}, @samp{name} (via @code{strdup}), @samp{bval}, and @samp{name} again. If application code relies on copy-assignment, a user-defined copy-assignment operator removes any uncertainties. With such an operator, the application can define whether and how the virtual base subobject is assigned. @node Protoize Caveats @section Caveats of using @code{protoize} The conversion programs @code{protoize} and @code{unprotoize} can sometimes change a source file in a way that won't work unless you rearrange it. @itemize @bullet @item @code{protoize} can insert references to a type name or type tag before the definition, or in a file where they are not defined. If this happens, compiler error messages should show you where the new references are, so fixing the file by hand is straightforward. @item There are some C constructs which @code{protoize} cannot figure out. For example, it can't determine argument types for declaring a pointer-to-function variable; this you must do by hand. @code{protoize} inserts a comment containing @samp{???} each time it finds such a variable; so you can find all such variables by searching for this string. ANSI C does not require declaring the argument types of pointer-to-function types. @item Using @code{unprotoize} can easily introduce bugs. If the program relied on prototypes to bring about conversion of arguments, these conversions will not take place in the program without prototypes. One case in which you can be sure @code{unprotoize} is safe is when you are removing prototypes that were made with @code{protoize}; if the program worked before without any prototypes, it will work again without them. You can find all the places where this problem might occur by compiling the program with the @samp{-Wconversion} option. It prints a warning whenever an argument is converted. @item Both conversion programs can be confused if there are macro calls in and around the text to be converted. In other words, the standard syntax for a declaration or definition must not result from expanding a macro. This problem is inherent in the design of C and cannot be fixed. If only a few functions have confusing macro calls, you can easily convert them manually. @item @code{protoize} cannot get the argument types for a function whose definition was not actually compiled due to preprocessing conditionals. When this happens, @code{protoize} changes nothing in regard to such a function. @code{protoize} tries to detect such instances and warn about them. You can generally work around this problem by using @code{protoize} step by step, each time specifying a different set of @samp{-D} options for compilation, until all of the functions have been converted. There is no automatic way to verify that you have got them all, however. @item Confusion may result if there is an occasion to convert a function declaration or definition in a region of source code where there is more than one formal parameter list present. Thus, attempts to convert code containing multiple (conditionally compiled) versions of a single function header (in the same vicinity) may not produce the desired (or expected) results. If you plan on converting source files which contain such code, it is recommended that you first make sure that each conditionally compiled region of source code which contains an alternative function header also contains at least one additional follower token (past the final right parenthesis of the function header). This should circumvent the problem. @item @code{unprotoize} can become confused when trying to convert a function definition or declaration which contains a declaration for a pointer-to-function formal argument which has the same name as the function being defined or declared. We recommand you avoid such choices of formal parameter names. @item You might also want to correct some of the indentation by hand and break long lines. (The conversion programs don't write lines longer than eighty characters in any case.) @end itemize @node Non-bugs @section Certain Changes We Don't Want to Make This section lists changes that people frequently request, but which we do not make because we think GNU CC is better without them. @itemize @bullet @item Checking the number and type of arguments to a function which has an old-fashioned definition and no prototype. Such a feature would work only occasionally---only for calls that appear in the same file as the called function, following the definition. The only way to check all calls reliably is to add a prototype for the function. But adding a prototype eliminates the motivation for this feature. So the feature is not worthwhile. @item Warning about using an expression whose type is signed as a shift count. Shift count operands are probably signed more often than unsigned. Warning about this would cause far more annoyance than good. @item Warning about assigning a signed value to an unsigned variable. Such assignments must be very common; warning about them would cause more annoyance than good. @item Warning about unreachable code. It's very common to have unreachable code in machine-generated programs. For example, this happens normally in some files of GNU C itself. @item Warning when a non-void function value is ignored. Coming as I do from a Lisp background, I balk at the idea that there is something dangerous about discarding a value. There are functions that return values which some callers may find useful; it makes no sense to clutter the program with a cast to @code{void} whenever the value isn't useful. @item Assuming (for optimization) that the address of an external symbol is never zero. This assumption is false on certain systems when @samp{#pragma weak} is used. @item Making @samp{-fshort-enums} the default. This would cause storage layout to be incompatible with most other C compilers. And it doesn't seem very important, given that you can get the same result in other ways. The case where it matters most is when the enumeration-valued object is inside a structure, and in that case you can specify a field width explicitly. @item Making bitfields unsigned by default on particular machines where ``the ABI standard'' says to do so. The ANSI C standard leaves it up to the implementation whether a bitfield declared plain @code{int} is signed or not. This in effect creates two alternative dialects of C. The GNU C compiler supports both dialects; you can specify the signed dialect with @samp{-fsigned-bitfields} and the unsigned dialect with @samp{-funsigned-bitfields}. However, this leaves open the question of which dialect to use by default. Currently, the preferred dialect makes plain bitfields signed, because this is simplest. Since @code{int} is the same as @code{signed int} in every other context, it is cleanest for them to be the same in bitfields as well. Some computer manufacturers have published Application Binary Interface standards which specify that plain bitfields should be unsigned. It is a mistake, however, to say anything about this issue in an ABI. This is because the handling of plain bitfields distinguishes two dialects of C. Both dialects are meaningful on every type of machine. Whether a particular object file was compiled using signed bitfields or unsigned is of no concern to other object files, even if they access the same bitfields in the same data structures. A given program is written in one or the other of these two dialects. The program stands a chance to work on most any machine if it is compiled with the proper dialect. It is unlikely to work at all if compiled with the wrong dialect. Many users appreciate the GNU C compiler because it provides an environment that is uniform across machines. These users would be inconvenienced if the compiler treated plain bitfields differently on certain machines. Occasionally users write programs intended only for a particular machine type. On these occasions, the users would benefit if the GNU C compiler were to support by default the same dialect as the other compilers on that machine. But such applications are rare. And users writing a program to run on more than one type of machine cannot possibly benefit from this kind of compatibility. This is why GNU CC does and will treat plain bitfields in the same fashion on all types of machines (by default). There are some arguments for making bitfields unsigned by default on all machines. If, for example, this becomes a universal de facto standard, it would make sense for GNU CC to go along with it. This is something to be considered in the future. (Of course, users strongly concerned about portability should indicate explicitly in each bitfield whether it is signed or not. In this way, they write programs which have the same meaning in both C dialects.) @item Undefining @code{__STDC__} when @samp{-ansi} is not used. Currently, GNU CC defines @code{__STDC__} as long as you don't use @samp{-traditional}. This provides good results in practice. Programmers normally use conditionals on @code{__STDC__} to ask whether it is safe to use certain features of ANSI C, such as function prototypes or ANSI token concatenation. Since plain @samp{gcc} supports all the features of ANSI C, the correct answer to these questions is ``yes''. Some users try to use @code{__STDC__} to check for the availability of certain library facilities. This is actually incorrect usage in an ANSI C program, because the ANSI C standard says that a conforming freestanding implementation should define @code{__STDC__} even though it does not have the library facilities. @samp{gcc -ansi -pedantic} is a conforming freestanding implementation, and it is therefore required to define @code{__STDC__}, even though it does not come with an ANSI C library. Sometimes people say that defining @code{__STDC__} in a compiler that does not completely conform to the ANSI C standard somehow violates the standard. This is illogical. The standard is a standard for compilers that claim to support ANSI C, such as @samp{gcc -ansi}---not for other compilers such as plain @samp{gcc}. Whatever the ANSI C standard says is relevant to the design of plain @samp{gcc} without @samp{-ansi} only for pragmatic reasons, not as a requirement. GNU CC normally defines @code{__STDC__} to be 1, and in addition defines @code{__STRICT_ANSI__} if you specify the @samp{-ansi} option. On some hosts, system include files use a different convention, where @code{__STDC__} is normally 0, but is 1 if the user specifies strict conformance to the C Standard. GNU CC follows the host convention when processing system include files, but when processing user files it follows the usual GNU C convention. @item Undefining @code{__STDC__} in C++. Programs written to compile with C++-to-C translators get the value of @code{__STDC__} that goes with the C compiler that is subsequently used. These programs must test @code{__STDC__} to determine what kind of C preprocessor that compiler uses: whether they should concatenate tokens in the ANSI C fashion or in the traditional fashion. These programs work properly with GNU C++ if @code{__STDC__} is defined. They would not work otherwise. In addition, many header files are written to provide prototypes in ANSI C but not in traditional C. Many of these header files can work without change in C++ provided @code{__STDC__} is defined. If @code{__STDC__} is not defined, they will all fail, and will all need to be changed to test explicitly for C++ as well. @item Deleting ``empty'' loops. Historically, GNU CC has not deleted ``empty'' loops under the assumption that the most likely reason you would put one in a program is to have a delay, so deleting them will not make real programs run any faster. However, the rationale here is that optimization of a nonempty loop cannot produce an empty one, which holds for C but is not always the case for C++. Moreover, with @samp{-funroll-loops} small ``empty'' loops are already removed, so the current behavior is both sub-optimal and inconsistent and will change in the future. @item Making side effects happen in the same order as in some other compiler. @cindex side effects, order of evaluation @cindex order of evaluation, side effects It is never safe to depend on the order of evaluation of side effects. For example, a function call like this may very well behave differently from one compiler to another: @example void func (int, int); int i = 2; func (i++, i++); @end example There is no guarantee (in either the C or the C++ standard language definitions) that the increments will be evaluated in any particular order. Either increment might happen first. @code{func} might get the arguments @samp{2, 3}, or it might get @samp{3, 2}, or even @samp{2, 2}. @item Not allowing structures with volatile fields in registers. Strictly speaking, there is no prohibition in the ANSI C standard against allowing structures with volatile fields in registers, but it does not seem to make any sense and is probably not what you wanted to do. So the compiler will give an error message in this case. @end itemize @node Warnings and Errors @section Warning Messages and Error Messages @cindex error messages @cindex warnings vs errors @cindex messages, warning and error The GNU compiler can produce two kinds of diagnostics: errors and warnings. Each kind has a different purpose: @itemize @w{} @item @emph{Errors} report problems that make it impossible to compile your program. GNU CC reports errors with the source file name and line number where the problem is apparent. @item @emph{Warnings} report other unusual conditions in your code that @emph{may} indicate a problem, although compilation can (and does) proceed. Warning messages also report the source file name and line number, but include the text @samp{warning:} to distinguish them from error messages. @end itemize Warnings may indicate danger points where you should check to make sure that your program really does what you intend; or the use of obsolete features; or the use of nonstandard features of GNU C or C++. Many warnings are issued only if you ask for them, with one of the @samp{-W} options (for instance, @samp{-Wall} requests a variety of useful warnings). GNU CC always tries to compile your program if possible; it never gratuitously rejects a program whose meaning is clear merely because (for instance) it fails to conform to a standard. In some cases, however, the C and C++ standards specify that certain extensions are forbidden, and a diagnostic @emph{must} be issued by a conforming compiler. The @samp{-pedantic} option tells GNU CC to issue warnings in such cases; @samp{-pedantic-errors} says to make them errors instead. This does not mean that @emph{all} non-ANSI constructs get warnings or errors. @xref{Warning Options,,Options to Request or Suppress Warnings}, for more detail on these and related command-line options. @node Bugs @chapter Reporting Bugs @cindex bugs @cindex reporting bugs Your bug reports play an essential role in making GNU CC reliable. When you encounter a problem, the first thing to do is to see if it is already known. @xref{Trouble}. If it isn't known, then you should report the problem. Reporting a bug may help you by bringing a solution to your problem, or it may not. (If it does not, look in the service directory; see @ref{Service}.) In any case, the principal function of a bug report is to help the entire community by making the next version of GNU CC work better. Bug reports are your contribution to the maintenance of GNU CC. Since the maintainers are very overloaded, we cannot respond to every bug report. However, if the bug has not been fixed, we are likely to send you a patch and ask you to tell us whether it works. In order for a bug report to serve its purpose, you must include the information that makes for fixing the bug. @menu * Criteria: Bug Criteria. Have you really found a bug? * Where: Bug Lists. Where to send your bug report. * Reporting: Bug Reporting. How to report a bug effectively. * Patches: Sending Patches. How to send a patch for GNU CC. * Known: Trouble. Known problems. * Help: Service. Where to ask for help. @end menu @node Bug Criteria @section Have You Found a Bug? @cindex bug criteria If you are not sure whether you have found a bug, here are some guidelines: @itemize @bullet @cindex fatal signal @cindex core dump @item If the compiler gets a fatal signal, for any input whatever, that is a compiler bug. Reliable compilers never crash. @cindex invalid assembly code @cindex assembly code, invalid @item If the compiler produces invalid assembly code, for any input whatever (except an @code{asm} statement), that is a compiler bug, unless the compiler reports errors (not just warnings) which would ordinarily prevent the assembler from being run. @cindex undefined behavior @cindex undefined function value @cindex increment operators @item If the compiler produces valid assembly code that does not correctly execute the input source code, that is a compiler bug. However, you must double-check to make sure, because you may have run into an incompatibility between GNU C and traditional C (@pxref{Incompatibilities}). These incompatibilities might be considered bugs, but they are inescapable consequences of valuable features. Or you may have a program whose behavior is undefined, which happened by chance to give the desired results with another C or C++ compiler. For example, in many nonoptimizing compilers, you can write @samp{x;} at the end of a function instead of @samp{return x;}, with the same results. But the value of the function is undefined if @code{return} is omitted; it is not a bug when GNU CC produces different results. Problems often result from expressions with two increment operators, as in @code{f (*p++, *p++)}. Your previous compiler might have interpreted that expression the way you intended; GNU CC might interpret it another way. Neither compiler is wrong. The bug is in your code. After you have localized the error to a single source line, it should be easy to check for these things. If your program is correct and well defined, you have found a compiler bug. @item If the compiler produces an error message for valid input, that is a compiler bug. @cindex invalid input @item If the compiler does not produce an error message for invalid input, that is a compiler bug. However, you should note that your idea of ``invalid input'' might be my idea of ``an extension'' or ``support for traditional practice''. @item If you are an experienced user of C or C++ compilers, your suggestions for improvement of GNU CC or GNU C++ are welcome in any case. @end itemize @node Bug Lists @section Where to Report Bugs @cindex bug report mailing lists @kindex egcs-bugs@@egcs.cygnus.com Send bug reports for GNU C to @samp{egcs-bugs@@egcs.cygnus.com}. @kindex egcs-bugs@@egcs.cygnus.com @kindex egcs-bugs@@egcs.cygnus.com Send bug reports for GNU C++ and the C++ runtime libraries to @samp{egcs-bugs@@egcs.cygnus.com}. Often people think of posting bug reports to the newsgroup instead of mailing them. This appears to work, but it has one problem which can be crucial: a newsgroup posting does not contain a mail path back to the sender. Thus, if maintainers need more information, they may be unable to reach you. For this reason, you should always send bug reports by mail to the proper mailing list. As a last resort, send bug reports on paper to: @example GNU Compiler Bugs Free Software Foundation 59 Temple Place - Suite 330 Boston, MA 02111-1307, USA @end example @node Bug Reporting @section How to Report Bugs @cindex compiler bugs, reporting The fundamental principle of reporting bugs usefully is this: @strong{report all the facts}. If you are not sure whether to state a fact or leave it out, state it! Often people omit facts because they think they know what causes the problem and they conclude that some details don't matter. Thus, you might assume that the name of the variable you use in an example does not matter. Well, probably it doesn't, but one cannot be sure. Perhaps the bug is a stray memory reference which happens to fetch from the location where that name is stored in memory; perhaps, if the name were different, the contents of that location would fool the compiler into doing the right thing despite the bug. Play it safe and give a specific, complete example. That is the easiest thing for you to do, and the most helpful. Keep in mind that the purpose of a bug report is to enable someone to fix the bug if it is not known. It isn't very important what happens if the bug is already known. Therefore, always write your bug reports on the assumption that the bug is not known. Sometimes people give a few sketchy facts and ask, ``Does this ring a bell?'' This cannot help us fix a bug, so it is basically useless. We respond by asking for enough details to enable us to investigate. You might as well expedite matters by sending them to begin with. Try to make your bug report self-contained. If we have to ask you for more information, it is best if you include all the previous information in your response, as well as the information that was missing. Please report each bug in a separate message. This makes it easier for us to track which bugs have been fixed and to forward your bugs reports to the appropriate maintainer. If you include source code in your message, you can send it as clear text if it is small. If the message is larger, you may compress it using @file{gzip}, @file{bzip2}, or @file{pkzip}. Please be aware that sending compressed files needs an additional binary-safe mechanism such as @code{MIME} or @code{uuencode}. There is a 100k message limit on the @samp{egcs-bugs@@egcs.cygnus.com} mailing list at the time of this writing (March 1999). We're trying to create some mechanism for larger bug reports to be submitted; please check the on-line FAQ for more up-to-date instructions. Don't think that just posting a URL to the code is better, we do want to archive bug reports, and not all maintainers have good network connectivity to download large pieces of software when they need them; it's much easier for them to have them in their mailboxes. To enable someone to investigate the bug, you should include all these things: @itemize @bullet @item The version of GNU CC. You can get this by running it with the @samp{-v} option. Without this, we won't know whether there is any point in looking for the bug in the current version of GNU CC. @item A complete input file that will reproduce the bug. If the bug is in the C preprocessor, send a source file and any header files that it requires. If the bug is in the compiler proper (@file{cc1}), send the preprocessor output generated by adding @samp{-save-temps} to the compilation command (@pxref{Debugging Options}). When you do this, use the same @samp{-I}, @samp{-D} or @samp{-U} options that you used in actual compilation. Then send the @var{input}.i or @var{input}.ii files generated. A single statement is not enough of an example. In order to compile it, it must be embedded in a complete file of compiler input; and the bug might depend on the details of how this is done. Without a real example one can compile, all anyone can do about your bug report is wish you luck. It would be futile to try to guess how to provoke the bug. For example, bugs in register allocation and reloading frequently depend on every little detail of the function they happen in. Even if the input file that fails comes from a GNU program, you should still send the complete test case. Don't ask the GNU CC maintainers to do the extra work of obtaining the program in question---they are all overworked as it is. Also, the problem may depend on what is in the header files on your system; it is unreliable for the GNU CC maintainers to try the problem with the header files available to them. By sending CPP output, you can eliminate this source of uncertainty and save us a certain percentage of wild goose chases. @item The command arguments you gave GNU CC or GNU C++ to compile that example and observe the bug. For example, did you use @samp{-O}? To guarantee you won't omit something important, list all the options. If we were to try to guess the arguments, we would probably guess wrong and then we would not encounter the bug. @item The type of machine you are using, and the operating system name and version number. @item The operands you gave to the @code{configure} command when you installed the compiler. @item A complete list of any modifications you have made to the compiler source. (We don't promise to investigate the bug unless it happens in an unmodified compiler. But if you've made modifications and don't tell us, then you are sending us on a wild goose chase.) Be precise about these changes. A description in English is not enough---send a context diff for them. Adding files of your own (such as a machine description for a machine we don't support) is a modification of the compiler source. @item Details of any other deviations from the standard procedure for installing GNU CC. @item A description of what behavior you observe that you believe is incorrect. For example, ``The compiler gets a fatal signal,'' or, ``The assembler instruction at line 208 in the output is incorrect.'' Of course, if the bug is that the compiler gets a fatal signal, then one can't miss it. But if the bug is incorrect output, the maintainer might not notice unless it is glaringly wrong. None of us has time to study all the assembler code from a 50-line C program just on the chance that one instruction might be wrong. We need @emph{you} to do this part! Even if the problem you experience is a fatal signal, you should still say so explicitly. Suppose something strange is going on, such as, your copy of the compiler is out of synch, or you have encountered a bug in the C library on your system. (This has happened!) Your copy might crash and the copy here would not. If you @i{said} to expect a crash, then when the compiler here fails to crash, we would know that the bug was not happening. If you don't say to expect a crash, then we would not know whether the bug was happening. We would not be able to draw any conclusion from our observations. If the problem is a diagnostic when compiling GNU CC with some other compiler, say whether it is a warning or an error. Often the observed symptom is incorrect output when your program is run. Sad to say, this is not enough information unless the program is short and simple. None of us has time to study a large program to figure out how it would work if compiled correctly, much less which line of it was compiled wrong. So you will have to do that. Tell us which source line it is, and what incorrect result happens when that line is executed. A person who understands the program can find this as easily as finding a bug in the program itself. @item If you send examples of assembler code output from GNU CC or GNU C++, please use @samp{-g} when you make them. The debugging information includes source line numbers which are essential for correlating the output with the input. @item If you wish to mention something in the GNU CC source, refer to it by context, not by line number. The line numbers in the development sources don't match those in your sources. Your line numbers would convey no useful information to the maintainers. @item Additional information from a debugger might enable someone to find a problem on a machine which he does not have available. However, you need to think when you collect this information if you want it to have any chance of being useful. @cindex backtrace for bug reports For example, many people send just a backtrace, but that is never useful by itself. A simple backtrace with arguments conveys little about GNU CC because the compiler is largely data-driven; the same functions are called over and over for different RTL insns, doing different things depending on the details of the insn. Most of the arguments listed in the backtrace are useless because they are pointers to RTL list structure. The numeric values of the pointers, which the debugger prints in the backtrace, have no significance whatever; all that matters is the contents of the objects they point to (and most of the contents are other such pointers). In addition, most compiler passes consist of one or more loops that scan the RTL insn sequence. The most vital piece of information about such a loop---which insn it has reached---is usually in a local variable, not in an argument. @findex debug_rtx What you need to provide in addition to a backtrace are the values of the local variables for several stack frames up. When a local variable or an argument is an RTX, first print its value and then use the GDB command @code{pr} to print the RTL expression that it points to. (If GDB doesn't run on your machine, use your debugger to call the function @code{debug_rtx} with the RTX as an argument.) In general, whenever a variable is a pointer, its value is no use without the data it points to. @end itemize Here are some things that are not necessary: @itemize @bullet @item A description of the envelope of the bug. Often people who encounter a bug spend a lot of time investigating which changes to the input file will make the bug go away and which changes will not affect it. This is often time consuming and not very useful, because the way we will find the bug is by running a single example under the debugger with breakpoints, not by pure deduction from a series of examples. You might as well save your time for something else. Of course, if you can find a simpler example to report @emph{instead} of the original one, that is a convenience. Errors in the output will be easier to spot, running under the debugger will take less time, etc. Most GNU CC bugs involve just one function, so the most straightforward way to simplify an example is to delete all the function definitions except the one where the bug occurs. Those earlier in the file may be replaced by external declarations if the crucial function depends on them. (Exception: inline functions may affect compilation of functions defined later in the file.) However, simplification is not vital; if you don't want to do this, report the bug anyway and send the entire test case you used. @item In particular, some people insert conditionals @samp{#ifdef BUG} around a statement which, if removed, makes the bug not happen. These are just clutter; we won't pay any attention to them anyway. Besides, you should send us cpp output, and that can't have conditionals. @item A patch for the bug. A patch for the bug is useful if it is a good one. But don't omit the necessary information, such as the test case, on the assumption that a patch is all we need. We might see problems with your patch and decide to fix the problem another way, or we might not understand it at all. Sometimes with a program as complicated as GNU CC it is very hard to construct an example that will make the program follow a certain path through the code. If you don't send the example, we won't be able to construct one, so we won't be able to verify that the bug is fixed. And if we can't understand what bug you are trying to fix, or why your patch should be an improvement, we won't install it. A test case will help us to understand. @xref{Sending Patches}, for guidelines on how to make it easy for us to understand and install your patches. @item A guess about what the bug is or what it depends on. Such guesses are usually wrong. Even I can't guess right about such things without first using the debugger to find the facts. @item A core dump file. We have no way of examining a core dump for your type of machine unless we have an identical system---and if we do have one, we should be able to reproduce the crash ourselves. @end itemize @node Sending Patches,, Bug Reporting, Bugs @section Sending Patches for GNU CC If you would like to write bug fixes or improvements for the GNU C compiler, that is very helpful. Send suggested fixes to the bug report mailing list, @code{egcs-bugs@@egcs.cygnus.com}. Please follow these guidelines so we can study your patches efficiently. If you don't follow these guidelines, your information might still be useful, but using it will take extra work. Maintaining GNU C is a lot of work in the best of circumstances, and we can't keep up unless you do your best to help. @itemize @bullet @item Send an explanation with your changes of what problem they fix or what improvement they bring about. For a bug fix, just include a copy of the bug report, and explain why the change fixes the bug. (Referring to a bug report is not as good as including it, because then we will have to look it up, and we have probably already deleted it if we've already fixed the bug.) @item Always include a proper bug report for the problem you think you have fixed. We need to convince ourselves that the change is right before installing it. Even if it is right, we might have trouble judging it if we don't have a way to reproduce the problem. @item Include all the comments that are appropriate to help people reading the source in the future understand why this change was needed. @item Don't mix together changes made for different reasons. Send them @emph{individually}. If you make two changes for separate reasons, then we might not want to install them both. We might want to install just one. If you send them all jumbled together in a single set of diffs, we have to do extra work to disentangle them---to figure out which parts of the change serve which purpose. If we don't have time for this, we might have to ignore your changes entirely. If you send each change as soon as you have written it, with its own explanation, then the two changes never get tangled up, and we can consider each one properly without any extra work to disentangle them. Ideally, each change you send should be impossible to subdivide into parts that we might want to consider separately, because each of its parts gets its motivation from the other parts. @item Send each change as soon as that change is finished. Sometimes people think they are helping us by accumulating many changes to send them all together. As explained above, this is absolutely the worst thing you could do. Since you should send each change separately, you might as well send it right away. That gives us the option of installing it immediately if it is important. @item Use @samp{diff -c} to make your diffs. Diffs without context are hard for us to install reliably. More than that, they make it hard for us to study the diffs to decide whether we want to install them. Unidiff format is better than contextless diffs, but not as easy to read as @samp{-c} format. If you have GNU diff, use @samp{diff -cp}, which shows the name of the function that each change occurs in. @item Write the change log entries for your changes. We get lots of changes, and we don't have time to do all the change log writing ourselves. Read the @file{ChangeLog} file to see what sorts of information to put in, and to learn the style that we use. The purpose of the change log is to show people where to find what was changed. So you need to be specific about what functions you changed; in large functions, it's often helpful to indicate where within the function the change was. On the other hand, once you have shown people where to find the change, you need not explain its purpose. Thus, if you add a new function, all you need to say about it is that it is new. If you feel that the purpose needs explaining, it probably does---but the explanation will be much more useful if you put it in comments in the code. If you would like your name to appear in the header line for who made the change, send us the header line. @item When you write the fix, keep in mind that we can't install a change that would break other systems. People often suggest fixing a problem by changing machine-independent files such as @file{toplev.c} to do something special that a particular system needs. Sometimes it is totally obvious that such changes would break GNU CC for almost all users. We can't possibly make a change like that. At best it might tell us how to write another patch that would solve the problem acceptably. Sometimes people send fixes that @emph{might} be an improvement in general---but it is hard to be sure of this. It's hard to install such changes because we have to study them very carefully. Of course, a good explanation of the reasoning by which you concluded the change was correct can help convince us. The safest changes are changes to the configuration files for a particular machine. These are safe because they can't create new bugs on other machines. Please help us keep up with the workload by designing the patch in a form that is good to install. @end itemize @node Service @chapter How To Get Help with GNU CC If you need help installing, using or changing GNU CC, there are two ways to find it: @itemize @bullet @item Send a message to a suitable network mailing list. First try @code{egcs-bugs@@egcs.cygnus.com}, and if that brings no response, try @code{egcs@@egcs.cygnus.com}. @item Look in the service directory for someone who might help you for a fee. The service directory is found in the file named @file{SERVICE} in the GNU CC distribution. @end itemize @node Contributing @chapter Contributing to GNU CC Development If you would like to help pretest GNU CC releases to assure they work well, or if you would like to work on improving GNU CC, please contact the maintainers at @code{egcs@@egcs.cygnus.com}. A pretester should be willing to try to investigate bugs as well as report them. If you'd like to work on improvements, please ask for suggested projects or suggest your own ideas. If you have already written an improvement, please tell us about it. If you have not yet started work, it is useful to contact @code{egcs@@egcs.cygnus.com} before you start; the maintainers may be able to suggest ways to make your extension fit in better with the rest of GNU CC and with other development plans. @node VMS @chapter Using GNU CC on VMS @c prevent bad page break with this line Here is how to use GNU CC on VMS. @menu * Include Files and VMS:: Where the preprocessor looks for the include files. * Global Declarations:: How to do globaldef, globalref and globalvalue with GNU CC. * VMS Misc:: Misc information. @end menu @node Include Files and VMS @section Include Files and VMS @cindex include files and VMS @cindex VMS and include files @cindex header files and VMS Due to the differences between the filesystems of Unix and VMS, GNU CC attempts to translate file names in @samp{#include} into names that VMS will understand. The basic strategy is to prepend a prefix to the specification of the include file, convert the whole filename to a VMS filename, and then try to open the file. GNU CC tries various prefixes one by one until one of them succeeds: @enumerate @item The first prefix is the @samp{GNU_CC_INCLUDE:} logical name: this is where GNU C header files are traditionally stored. If you wish to store header files in non-standard locations, then you can assign the logical @samp{GNU_CC_INCLUDE} to be a search list, where each element of the list is suitable for use with a rooted logical. @item The next prefix tried is @samp{SYS$SYSROOT:[SYSLIB.]}. This is where VAX-C header files are traditionally stored. @item If the include file specification by itself is a valid VMS filename, the preprocessor then uses this name with no prefix in an attempt to open the include file. @item If the file specification is not a valid VMS filename (i.e. does not contain a device or a directory specifier, and contains a @samp{/} character), the preprocessor tries to convert it from Unix syntax to VMS syntax. Conversion works like this: the first directory name becomes a device, and the rest of the directories are converted into VMS-format directory names. For example, the name @file{X11/foobar.h} is translated to @file{X11:[000000]foobar.h} or @file{X11:foobar.h}, whichever one can be opened. This strategy allows you to assign a logical name to point to the actual location of the header files. @item If none of these strategies succeeds, the @samp{#include} fails. @end enumerate Include directives of the form: @example #include foobar @end example @noindent are a common source of incompatibility between VAX-C and GNU CC. VAX-C treats this much like a standard @code{#include } directive. That is incompatible with the ANSI C behavior implemented by GNU CC: to expand the name @code{foobar} as a macro. Macro expansion should eventually yield one of the two standard formats for @code{#include}: @example #include "@var{file}" #include <@var{file}> @end example If you have this problem, the best solution is to modify the source to convert the @code{#include} directives to one of the two standard forms. That will work with either compiler. If you want a quick and dirty fix, define the file names as macros with the proper expansion, like this: @example #define stdio @end example @noindent This will work, as long as the name doesn't conflict with anything else in the program. Another source of incompatibility is that VAX-C assumes that: @example #include "foobar" @end example @noindent is actually asking for the file @file{foobar.h}. GNU CC does not make this assumption, and instead takes what you ask for literally; it tries to read the file @file{foobar}. The best way to avoid this problem is to always specify the desired file extension in your include directives. GNU CC for VMS is distributed with a set of include files that is sufficient to compile most general purpose programs. Even though the GNU CC distribution does not contain header files to define constants and structures for some VMS system-specific functions, there is no reason why you cannot use GNU CC with any of these functions. You first may have to generate or create header files, either by using the public domain utility @code{UNSDL} (which can be found on a DECUS tape), or by extracting the relevant modules from one of the system macro libraries, and using an editor to construct a C header file. A @code{#include} file name cannot contain a DECNET node name. The preprocessor reports an I/O error if you attempt to use a node name, whether explicitly, or implicitly via a logical name. @node Global Declarations @section Global Declarations and VMS @findex GLOBALREF @findex GLOBALDEF @findex GLOBALVALUEDEF @findex GLOBALVALUEREF GNU CC does not provide the @code{globalref}, @code{globaldef} and @code{globalvalue} keywords of VAX-C. You can get the same effect with an obscure feature of GAS, the GNU assembler. (This requires GAS version 1.39 or later.) The following macros allow you to use this feature in a fairly natural way: @smallexample #ifdef __GNUC__ #define GLOBALREF(TYPE,NAME) \ TYPE NAME \ asm ("_$$PsectAttributes_GLOBALSYMBOL$$" #NAME) #define GLOBALDEF(TYPE,NAME,VALUE) \ TYPE NAME \ asm ("_$$PsectAttributes_GLOBALSYMBOL$$" #NAME) \ = VALUE #define GLOBALVALUEREF(TYPE,NAME) \ const TYPE NAME[1] \ asm ("_$$PsectAttributes_GLOBALVALUE$$" #NAME) #define GLOBALVALUEDEF(TYPE,NAME,VALUE) \ const TYPE NAME[1] \ asm ("_$$PsectAttributes_GLOBALVALUE$$" #NAME) \ = @{VALUE@} #else #define GLOBALREF(TYPE,NAME) \ globalref TYPE NAME #define GLOBALDEF(TYPE,NAME,VALUE) \ globaldef TYPE NAME = VALUE #define GLOBALVALUEDEF(TYPE,NAME,VALUE) \ globalvalue TYPE NAME = VALUE #define GLOBALVALUEREF(TYPE,NAME) \ globalvalue TYPE NAME #endif @end smallexample @noindent (The @code{_$$PsectAttributes_GLOBALSYMBOL} prefix at the start of the name is removed by the assembler, after it has modified the attributes of the symbol). These macros are provided in the VMS binaries distribution in a header file @file{GNU_HACKS.H}. An example of the usage is: @example GLOBALREF (int, ijk); GLOBALDEF (int, jkl, 0); @end example The macros @code{GLOBALREF} and @code{GLOBALDEF} cannot be used straightforwardly for arrays, since there is no way to insert the array dimension into the declaration at the right place. However, you can declare an array with these macros if you first define a typedef for the array type, like this: @example typedef int intvector[10]; GLOBALREF (intvector, foo); @end example Array and structure initializers will also break the macros; you can define the initializer to be a macro of its own, or you can expand the @code{GLOBALDEF} macro by hand. You may find a case where you wish to use the @code{GLOBALDEF} macro with a large array, but you are not interested in explicitly initializing each element of the array. In such cases you can use an initializer like: @code{@{0,@}}, which will initialize the entire array to @code{0}. A shortcoming of this implementation is that a variable declared with @code{GLOBALVALUEREF} or @code{GLOBALVALUEDEF} is always an array. For example, the declaration: @example GLOBALVALUEREF(int, ijk); @end example @noindent declares the variable @code{ijk} as an array of type @code{int [1]}. This is done because a globalvalue is actually a constant; its ``value'' is what the linker would normally consider an address. That is not how an integer value works in C, but it is how an array works. So treating the symbol as an array name gives consistent results---with the exception that the value seems to have the wrong type. @strong{Don't try to access an element of the array.} It doesn't have any elements. The array ``address'' may not be the address of actual storage. The fact that the symbol is an array may lead to warnings where the variable is used. Insert type casts to avoid the warnings. Here is an example; it takes advantage of the ANSI C feature allowing macros that expand to use the same name as the macro itself. @example GLOBALVALUEREF (int, ss$_normal); GLOBALVALUEDEF (int, xyzzy,123); #ifdef __GNUC__ #define ss$_normal ((int) ss$_normal) #define xyzzy ((int) xyzzy) #endif @end example Don't use @code{globaldef} or @code{globalref} with a variable whose type is an enumeration type; this is not implemented. Instead, make the variable an integer, and use a @code{globalvaluedef} for each of the enumeration values. An example of this would be: @example #ifdef __GNUC__ GLOBALDEF (int, color, 0); GLOBALVALUEDEF (int, RED, 0); GLOBALVALUEDEF (int, BLUE, 1); GLOBALVALUEDEF (int, GREEN, 3); #else enum globaldef color @{RED, BLUE, GREEN = 3@}; #endif @end example @node VMS Misc @section Other VMS Issues @cindex exit status and VMS @cindex return value of @code{main} @cindex @code{main} and the exit status GNU CC automatically arranges for @code{main} to return 1 by default if you fail to specify an explicit return value. This will be interpreted by VMS as a status code indicating a normal successful completion. Version 1 of GNU CC did not provide this default. GNU CC on VMS works only with the GNU assembler, GAS. You need version 1.37 or later of GAS in order to produce value debugging information for the VMS debugger. Use the ordinary VMS linker with the object files produced by GAS. @cindex shared VMS run time system @cindex @file{VAXCRTL} Under previous versions of GNU CC, the generated code would occasionally give strange results when linked to the sharable @file{VAXCRTL} library. Now this should work. A caveat for use of @code{const} global variables: the @code{const} modifier must be specified in every external declaration of the variable in all of the source files that use that variable. Otherwise the linker will issue warnings about conflicting attributes for the variable. Your program will still work despite the warnings, but the variable will be placed in writable storage. @cindex name augmentation @cindex case sensitivity and VMS @cindex VMS and case sensitivity Although the VMS linker does distinguish between upper and lower case letters in global symbols, most VMS compilers convert all such symbols into upper case and most run-time library routines also have upper case names. To be able to reliably call such routines, GNU CC (by means of the assembler GAS) converts global symbols into upper case like other VMS compilers. However, since the usual practice in C is to distinguish case, GNU CC (via GAS) tries to preserve usual C behavior by augmenting each name that is not all lower case. This means truncating the name to at most 23 characters and then adding more characters at the end which encode the case pattern of those 23. Names which contain at least one dollar sign are an exception; they are converted directly into upper case without augmentation. Name augmentation yields bad results for programs that use precompiled libraries (such as Xlib) which were generated by another compiler. You can use the compiler option @samp{/NOCASE_HACK} to inhibit augmentation; it makes external C functions and variables case-independent as is usual on VMS. Alternatively, you could write all references to the functions and variables in such libraries using lower case; this will work on VMS, but is not portable to other systems. The compiler option @samp{/NAMES} also provides control over global name handling. Function and variable names are handled somewhat differently with GNU C++. The GNU C++ compiler performs @dfn{name mangling} on function names, which means that it adds information to the function name to describe the data types of the arguments that the function takes. One result of this is that the name of a function can become very long. Since the VMS linker only recognizes the first 31 characters in a name, special action is taken to ensure that each function and variable has a unique name that can be represented in 31 characters. If the name (plus a name augmentation, if required) is less than 32 characters in length, then no special action is performed. If the name is longer than 31 characters, the assembler (GAS) will generate a hash string based upon the function name, truncate the function name to 23 characters, and append the hash string to the truncated name. If the @samp{/VERBOSE} compiler option is used, the assembler will print both the full and truncated names of each symbol that is truncated. The @samp{/NOCASE_HACK} compiler option should not be used when you are compiling programs that use libg++. libg++ has several instances of objects (i.e. @code{Filebuf} and @code{filebuf}) which become indistinguishable in a case-insensitive environment. This leads to cases where you need to inhibit augmentation selectively (if you were using libg++ and Xlib in the same program, for example). There is no special feature for doing this, but you can get the result by defining a macro for each mixed case symbol for which you wish to inhibit augmentation. The macro should expand into the lower case equivalent of itself. For example: @example #define StuDlyCapS studlycaps @end example These macro definitions can be placed in a header file to minimize the number of changes to your source code. @end ifset @ifset INTERNALS @node Portability @chapter GNU CC and Portability @cindex portability @cindex GNU CC and portability The main goal of GNU CC was to make a good, fast compiler for machines in the class that the GNU system aims to run on: 32-bit machines that address 8-bit bytes and have several general registers. Elegance, theoretical power and simplicity are only secondary. GNU CC gets most of the information about the target machine from a machine description which gives an algebraic formula for each of the machine's instructions. This is a very clean way to describe the target. But when the compiler needs information that is difficult to express in this fashion, I have not hesitated to define an ad-hoc parameter to the machine description. The purpose of portability is to reduce the total work needed on the compiler; it was not of interest for its own sake. @cindex endianness @cindex autoincrement addressing, availability @findex abort GNU CC does not contain machine dependent code, but it does contain code that depends on machine parameters such as endianness (whether the most significant byte has the highest or lowest address of the bytes in a word) and the availability of autoincrement addressing. In the RTL-generation pass, it is often necessary to have multiple strategies for generating code for a particular kind of syntax tree, strategies that are usable for different combinations of parameters. Often I have not tried to address all possible cases, but only the common ones or only the ones that I have encountered. As a result, a new target may require additional strategies. You will know if this happens because the compiler will call @code{abort}. Fortunately, the new strategies can be added in a machine-independent fashion, and will affect only the target machines that need them. @end ifset @ifset INTERNALS @node Interface @chapter Interfacing to GNU CC Output @cindex interfacing to GNU CC output @cindex run-time conventions @cindex function call conventions @cindex conventions, run-time GNU CC is normally configured to use the same function calling convention normally in use on the target system. This is done with the machine-description macros described (@pxref{Target Macros}). @cindex unions, returning @cindex structures, returning @cindex returning structures and unions However, returning of structure and union values is done differently on some target machines. As a result, functions compiled with PCC returning such types cannot be called from code compiled with GNU CC, and vice versa. This does not cause trouble often because few Unix library routines return structures or unions. GNU CC code returns structures and unions that are 1, 2, 4 or 8 bytes long in the same registers used for @code{int} or @code{double} return values. (GNU CC typically allocates variables of such types in registers also.) Structures and unions of other sizes are returned by storing them into an address passed by the caller (usually in a register). The machine-description macros @code{STRUCT_VALUE} and @code{STRUCT_INCOMING_VALUE} tell GNU CC where to pass this address. By contrast, PCC on most target machines returns structures and unions of any size by copying the data into an area of static storage, and then returning the address of that storage as if it were a pointer value. The caller must copy the data from that memory area to the place where the value is wanted. This is slower than the method used by GNU CC, and fails to be reentrant. On some target machines, such as RISC machines and the 80386, the standard system convention is to pass to the subroutine the address of where to return the value. On these machines, GNU CC has been configured to be compatible with the standard compiler, when this method is used. It may not be compatible for structures of 1, 2, 4 or 8 bytes. @cindex argument passing @cindex passing arguments GNU CC uses the system's standard convention for passing arguments. On some machines, the first few arguments are passed in registers; in others, all are passed on the stack. It would be possible to use registers for argument passing on any machine, and this would probably result in a significant speedup. But the result would be complete incompatibility with code that follows the standard convention. So this change is practical only if you are switching to GNU CC as the sole C compiler for the system. We may implement register argument passing on certain machines once we have a complete GNU system so that we can compile the libraries with GNU CC. On some machines (particularly the Sparc), certain types of arguments are passed ``by invisible reference''. This means that the value is stored in memory, and the address of the memory location is passed to the subroutine. @cindex @code{longjmp} and automatic variables If you use @code{longjmp}, beware of automatic variables. ANSI C says that automatic variables that are not declared @code{volatile} have undefined values after a @code{longjmp}. And this is all GNU CC promises to do, because it is very difficult to restore register variables correctly, and one of GNU CC's features is that it can put variables in registers without your asking it to. If you want a variable to be unaltered by @code{longjmp}, and you don't want to write @code{volatile} because old C compilers don't accept it, just take the address of the variable. If a variable's address is ever taken, even if just to compute it and ignore it, then the variable cannot go in a register: @example @{ int careful; &careful; @dots{} @} @end example @cindex arithmetic libraries @cindex math libraries Code compiled with GNU CC may call certain library routines. Most of them handle arithmetic for which there are no instructions. This includes multiply and divide on some machines, and floating point operations on any machine for which floating point support is disabled with @samp{-msoft-float}. Some standard parts of the C library, such as @code{bcopy} or @code{memcpy}, are also called automatically. The usual function call interface is used for calling the library routines. These library routines should be defined in the library @file{libgcc.a}, which GNU CC automatically searches whenever it links a program. On machines that have multiply and divide instructions, if hardware floating point is in use, normally @file{libgcc.a} is not needed, but it is searched just in case. Each arithmetic function is defined in @file{libgcc1.c} to use the corresponding C arithmetic operator. As long as the file is compiled with another C compiler, which supports all the C arithmetic operators, this file will work portably. However, @file{libgcc1.c} does not work if compiled with GNU CC, because each arithmetic function would compile into a call to itself! @end ifset @ifset INTERNALS @node Passes @chapter Passes and Files of the Compiler @cindex passes and files of the compiler @cindex files and passes of the compiler @cindex compiler passes and files @cindex top level of compiler The overall control structure of the compiler is in @file{toplev.c}. This file is responsible for initialization, decoding arguments, opening and closing files, and sequencing the passes. @cindex parsing pass The parsing pass is invoked only once, to parse the entire input. The RTL intermediate code for a function is generated as the function is parsed, a statement at a time. Each statement is read in as a syntax tree and then converted to RTL; then the storage for the tree for the statement is reclaimed. Storage for types (and the expressions for their sizes), declarations, and a representation of the binding contours and how they nest, remain until the function is finished being compiled; these are all needed to output the debugging information. @findex rest_of_compilation @findex rest_of_decl_compilation Each time the parsing pass reads a complete function definition or top-level declaration, it calls either the function @code{rest_of_compilation}, or the function @code{rest_of_decl_compilation} in @file{toplev.c}, which are responsible for all further processing necessary, ending with output of the assembler language. All other compiler passes run, in sequence, within @code{rest_of_compilation}. When that function returns from compiling a function definition, the storage used for that function definition's compilation is entirely freed, unless it is an inline function @ifset USING (@pxref{Inline,,An Inline Function is As Fast As a Macro}). @end ifset @ifclear USING (@pxref{Inline,,An Inline Function is As Fast As a Macro,gcc.texi,Using GCC}). @end ifclear Here is a list of all the passes of the compiler and their source files. Also included is a description of where debugging dumps can be requested with @samp{-d} options. @itemize @bullet @item Parsing. This pass reads the entire text of a function definition, constructing partial syntax trees. This and RTL generation are no longer truly separate passes (formerly they were), but it is easier to think of them as separate. The tree representation does not entirely follow C syntax, because it is intended to support other languages as well. Language-specific data type analysis is also done in this pass, and every tree node that represents an expression has a data type attached. Variables are represented as declaration nodes. @cindex constant folding @cindex arithmetic simplifications @cindex simplifications, arithmetic Constant folding and some arithmetic simplifications are also done during this pass. The language-independent source files for parsing are @file{stor-layout.c}, @file{fold-const.c}, and @file{tree.c}. There are also header files @file{tree.h} and @file{tree.def} which define the format of the tree representation.@refill @c Avoiding overfull is tricky here. The source files to parse C are @file{c-parse.in}, @file{c-decl.c}, @file{c-typeck.c}, @file{c-aux-info.c}, @file{c-convert.c}, and @file{c-lang.c} along with header files @file{c-lex.h}, and @file{c-tree.h}. The source files for parsing C++ are @file{cp-parse.y}, @file{cp-class.c},@* @file{cp-cvt.c}, @file{cp-decl.c}, @file{cp-decl2.c}, @file{cp-dem.c}, @file{cp-except.c},@* @file{cp-expr.c}, @file{cp-init.c}, @file{cp-lex.c}, @file{cp-method.c}, @file{cp-ptree.c},@* @file{cp-search.c}, @file{cp-tree.c}, @file{cp-type2.c}, and @file{cp-typeck.c}, along with header files @file{cp-tree.def}, @file{cp-tree.h}, and @file{cp-decl.h}. The special source files for parsing Objective C are @file{objc-parse.y}, @file{objc-actions.c}, @file{objc-tree.def}, and @file{objc-actions.h}. Certain C-specific files are used for this as well. The file @file{c-common.c} is also used for all of the above languages. @cindex RTL generation @item RTL generation. This is the conversion of syntax tree into RTL code. It is actually done statement-by-statement during parsing, but for most purposes it can be thought of as a separate pass. @cindex target-parameter-dependent code This is where the bulk of target-parameter-dependent code is found, since often it is necessary for strategies to apply only when certain standard kinds of instructions are available. The purpose of named instruction patterns is to provide this information to the RTL generation pass. @cindex tail recursion optimization Optimization is done in this pass for @code{if}-conditions that are comparisons, boolean operations or conditional expressions. Tail recursion is detected at this time also. Decisions are made about how best to arrange loops and how to output @code{switch} statements. @c Avoiding overfull is tricky here. The source files for RTL generation include @file{stmt.c}, @file{calls.c}, @file{expr.c}, @file{explow.c}, @file{expmed.c}, @file{function.c}, @file{optabs.c} and @file{emit-rtl.c}. Also, the file @file{insn-emit.c}, generated from the machine description by the program @code{genemit}, is used in this pass. The header file @file{expr.h} is used for communication within this pass.@refill @findex genflags @findex gencodes The header files @file{insn-flags.h} and @file{insn-codes.h}, generated from the machine description by the programs @code{genflags} and @code{gencodes}, tell this pass which standard names are available for use and which patterns correspond to them.@refill Aside from debugging information output, none of the following passes refers to the tree structure representation of the function (only part of which is saved). @cindex inline, automatic The decision of whether the function can and should be expanded inline in its subsequent callers is made at the end of rtl generation. The function must meet certain criteria, currently related to the size of the function and the types and number of parameters it has. Note that this function may contain loops, recursive calls to itself (tail-recursive functions can be inlined!), gotos, in short, all constructs supported by GNU CC. The file @file{integrate.c} contains the code to save a function's rtl for later inlining and to inline that rtl when the function is called. The header file @file{integrate.h} is also used for this purpose. The option @samp{-dr} causes a debugging dump of the RTL code after this pass. This dump file's name is made by appending @samp{.rtl} to the input file name. @cindex jump optimization @cindex unreachable code @cindex dead code @item Jump optimization. This pass simplifies jumps to the following instruction, jumps across jumps, and jumps to jumps. It deletes unreferenced labels and unreachable code, except that unreachable code that contains a loop is not recognized as unreachable in this pass. (Such loops are deleted later in the basic block analysis.) It also converts some code originally written with jumps into sequences of instructions that directly set values from the results of comparisons, if the machine has such instructions. Jump optimization is performed two or three times. The first time is immediately following RTL generation. The second time is after CSE, but only if CSE says repeated jump optimization is needed. The last time is right before the final pass. That time, cross-jumping and deletion of no-op move instructions are done together with the optimizations described above. The source file of this pass is @file{jump.c}. The option @samp{-dj} causes a debugging dump of the RTL code after this pass is run for the first time. This dump file's name is made by appending @samp{.jump} to the input file name. @cindex register use analysis @item Register scan. This pass finds the first and last use of each register, as a guide for common subexpression elimination. Its source is in @file{regclass.c}. @cindex jump threading @item Jump threading. This pass detects a condition jump that branches to an identical or inverse test. Such jumps can be @samp{threaded} through the second conditional test. The source code for this pass is in @file{jump.c}. This optimization is only performed if @samp{-fthread-jumps} is enabled. @cindex common subexpression elimination @cindex constant propagation @item Common subexpression elimination. This pass also does constant propagation. Its source file is @file{cse.c}. If constant propagation causes conditional jumps to become unconditional or to become no-ops, jump optimization is run again when CSE is finished. The option @samp{-ds} causes a debugging dump of the RTL code after this pass. This dump file's name is made by appending @samp{.cse} to the input file name. @cindex global common subexpression elimination @cindex constant propagation @cindex copy propagation @item Global common subexpression elimination. This pass performs GCSE using Morel-Renvoise Partial Redundancy Elimination, with the exception that it does not try to move invariants out of loops - that is left to the loop optimization pass. This pass also performs global constant and copy propagation. The source file for this pass is gcse.c. The option @samp{-dG} causes a debugging dump of the RTL code after this pass. This dump file's name is made by appending @samp{.gcse} to the input file name. @cindex loop optimization @cindex code motion @cindex strength-reduction @item Loop optimization. This pass moves constant expressions out of loops, and optionally does strength-reduction and loop unrolling as well. Its source files are @file{loop.c} and @file{unroll.c}, plus the header @file{loop.h} used for communication between them. Loop unrolling uses some functions in @file{integrate.c} and the header @file{integrate.h}. The option @samp{-dL} causes a debugging dump of the RTL code after this pass. This dump file's name is made by appending @samp{.loop} to the input file name. @item If @samp{-frerun-cse-after-loop} was enabled, a second common subexpression elimination pass is performed after the loop optimization pass. Jump threading is also done again at this time if it was specified. The option @samp{-dt} causes a debugging dump of the RTL code after this pass. This dump file's name is made by appending @samp{.cse2} to the input file name. @cindex register allocation, stupid @cindex stupid register allocation @item Stupid register allocation is performed at this point in a nonoptimizing compilation. It does a little data flow analysis as well. When stupid register allocation is in use, the next pass executed is the reloading pass; the others in between are skipped. The source file is @file{stupid.c}. @cindex data flow analysis @cindex analysis, data flow @cindex basic blocks @item Data flow analysis (@file{flow.c}). This pass divides the program into basic blocks (and in the process deletes unreachable loops); then it computes which pseudo-registers are live at each point in the program, and makes the first instruction that uses a value point at the instruction that computed the value. @cindex autoincrement/decrement analysis This pass also deletes computations whose results are never used, and combines memory references with add or subtract instructions to make autoincrement or autodecrement addressing. The option @samp{-df} causes a debugging dump of the RTL code after this pass. This dump file's name is made by appending @samp{.flow} to the input file name. If stupid register allocation is in use, this dump file reflects the full results of such allocation. @cindex instruction combination @item Instruction combination (@file{combine.c}). This pass attempts to combine groups of two or three instructions that are related by data flow into single instructions. It combines the RTL expressions for the instructions by substitution, simplifies the result using algebra, and then attempts to match the result against the machine description. The option @samp{-dc} causes a debugging dump of the RTL code after this pass. This dump file's name is made by appending @samp{.combine} to the input file name. @cindex register movement @item Register movement (@file{regmove.c}). This pass looks for cases where matching constraints would force an instruction to need a reload, and this reload would be a register to register move. It them attempts to change the registers used by the instruction to avoid the move instruction. The option @samp{-dN} causes a debugging dump of the RTL code after this pass. This dump file's name is made by appending @samp{.regmove} to the input file name. @cindex instruction scheduling @cindex scheduling, instruction @item Instruction scheduling (@file{sched.c}). This pass looks for instructions whose output will not be available by the time that it is used in subsequent instructions. (Memory loads and floating point instructions often have this behavior on RISC machines). It re-orders instructions within a basic block to try to separate the definition and use of items that otherwise would cause pipeline stalls. Instruction scheduling is performed twice. The first time is immediately after instruction combination and the second is immediately after reload. The option @samp{-dS} causes a debugging dump of the RTL code after this pass is run for the first time. The dump file's name is made by appending @samp{.sched} to the input file name. @cindex register class preference pass @item Register class preferencing. The RTL code is scanned to find out which register class is best for each pseudo register. The source file is @file{regclass.c}. @cindex register allocation @cindex local register allocation @item Local register allocation (@file{local-alloc.c}). This pass allocates hard registers to pseudo registers that are used only within one basic block. Because the basic block is linear, it can use fast and powerful techniques to do a very good job. The option @samp{-dl} causes a debugging dump of the RTL code after this pass. This dump file's name is made by appending @samp{.lreg} to the input file name. @cindex global register allocation @item Global register allocation (@file{global.c}). This pass allocates hard registers for the remaining pseudo registers (those whose life spans are not contained in one basic block). @cindex reloading @item Reloading. This pass renumbers pseudo registers with the hardware registers numbers they were allocated. Pseudo registers that did not get hard registers are replaced with stack slots. Then it finds instructions that are invalid because a value has failed to end up in a register, or has ended up in a register of the wrong kind. It fixes up these instructions by reloading the problematical values temporarily into registers. Additional instructions are generated to do the copying. The reload pass also optionally eliminates the frame pointer and inserts instructions to save and restore call-clobbered registers around calls. Source files are @file{reload.c} and @file{reload1.c}, plus the header @file{reload.h} used for communication between them. The option @samp{-dg} causes a debugging dump of the RTL code after this pass. This dump file's name is made by appending @samp{.greg} to the input file name. @cindex instruction scheduling @cindex scheduling, instruction @item Instruction scheduling is repeated here to try to avoid pipeline stalls due to memory loads generated for spilled pseudo registers. The option @samp{-dR} causes a debugging dump of the RTL code after this pass. This dump file's name is made by appending @samp{.sched2} to the input file name. @cindex cross-jumping @cindex no-op move instructions @item Jump optimization is repeated, this time including cross-jumping and deletion of no-op move instructions. The option @samp{-dJ} causes a debugging dump of the RTL code after this pass. This dump file's name is made by appending @samp{.jump2} to the input file name. @cindex delayed branch scheduling @cindex scheduling, delayed branch @item Delayed branch scheduling. This optional pass attempts to find instructions that can go into the delay slots of other instructions, usually jumps and calls. The source file name is @file{reorg.c}. The option @samp{-dd} causes a debugging dump of the RTL code after this pass. This dump file's name is made by appending @samp{.dbr} to the input file name. @cindex register-to-stack conversion @item Conversion from usage of some hard registers to usage of a register stack may be done at this point. Currently, this is supported only for the floating-point registers of the Intel 80387 coprocessor. The source file name is @file{reg-stack.c}. The options @samp{-dk} causes a debugging dump of the RTL code after this pass. This dump file's name is made by appending @samp{.stack} to the input file name. @cindex final pass @cindex peephole optimization @item Final. This pass outputs the assembler code for the function. It is also responsible for identifying spurious test and compare instructions. Machine-specific peephole optimizations are performed at the same time. The function entry and exit sequences are generated directly as assembler code in this pass; they never exist as RTL. The source files are @file{final.c} plus @file{insn-output.c}; the latter is generated automatically from the machine description by the tool @file{genoutput}. The header file @file{conditions.h} is used for communication between these files. @cindex debugging information generation @item Debugging information output. This is run after final because it must output the stack slot offsets for pseudo registers that did not get hard registers. Source files are @file{dbxout.c} for DBX symbol table format, @file{sdbout.c} for SDB symbol table format, and @file{dwarfout.c} for DWARF symbol table format. @end itemize Some additional files are used by all or many passes: @itemize @bullet @item Every pass uses @file{machmode.def} and @file{machmode.h} which define the machine modes. @item Several passes use @file{real.h}, which defines the default representation of floating point constants and how to operate on them. @item All the passes that work with RTL use the header files @file{rtl.h} and @file{rtl.def}, and subroutines in file @file{rtl.c}. The tools @code{gen*} also use these files to read and work with the machine description RTL. @findex genconfig @item Several passes refer to the header file @file{insn-config.h} which contains a few parameters (C macro definitions) generated automatically from the machine description RTL by the tool @code{genconfig}. @cindex instruction recognizer @item Several passes use the instruction recognizer, which consists of @file{recog.c} and @file{recog.h}, plus the files @file{insn-recog.c} and @file{insn-extract.c} that are generated automatically from the machine description by the tools @file{genrecog} and @file{genextract}.@refill @item Several passes use the header files @file{regs.h} which defines the information recorded about pseudo register usage, and @file{basic-block.h} which defines the information recorded about basic blocks. @item @file{hard-reg-set.h} defines the type @code{HARD_REG_SET}, a bit-vector with a bit for each hard register, and some macros to manipulate it. This type is just @code{int} if the machine has few enough hard registers; otherwise it is an array of @code{int} and some of the macros expand into loops. @item Several passes use instruction attributes. A definition of the attributes defined for a particular machine is in file @file{insn-attr.h}, which is generated from the machine description by the program @file{genattr}. The file @file{insn-attrtab.c} contains subroutines to obtain the attribute values for insns. It is generated from the machine description by the program @file{genattrtab}.@refill @end itemize @end ifset @ifset INTERNALS @include rtl.texi @include md.texi @include tm.texi @end ifset @ifset INTERNALS @node Config @chapter The Configuration File @cindex configuration file @cindex @file{xm-@var{machine}.h} The configuration file @file{xm-@var{machine}.h} contains macro definitions that describe the machine and system on which the compiler is running, unlike the definitions in @file{@var{machine}.h}, which describe the machine for which the compiler is producing output. Most of the values in @file{xm-@var{machine}.h} are actually the same on all machines that GNU CC runs on, so large parts of all configuration files are identical. But there are some macros that vary: @table @code @findex USG @item USG Define this macro if the host system is System V. @findex VMS @item VMS Define this macro if the host system is VMS. @findex FATAL_EXIT_CODE @item FATAL_EXIT_CODE A C expression for the status code to be returned when the compiler exits after serious errors. @findex SUCCESS_EXIT_CODE @item SUCCESS_EXIT_CODE A C expression for the status code to be returned when the compiler exits without serious errors. @findex HOST_WORDS_BIG_ENDIAN @item HOST_WORDS_BIG_ENDIAN Defined if the host machine stores words of multi-word values in big-endian order. (GNU CC does not depend on the host byte ordering within a word.) @findex HOST_FLOAT_WORDS_BIG_ENDIAN @item HOST_FLOAT_WORDS_BIG_ENDIAN Define this macro to be 1 if the host machine stores @code{DFmode}, @code{XFmode} or @code{TFmode} floating point numbers in memory with the word containing the sign bit at the lowest address; otherwise, define it to be zero. This macro need not be defined if the ordering is the same as for multi-word integers. @findex HOST_FLOAT_FORMAT @item HOST_FLOAT_FORMAT A numeric code distinguishing the floating point format for the host machine. See @code{TARGET_FLOAT_FORMAT} in @ref{Storage Layout} for the alternatives and default. @findex HOST_BITS_PER_CHAR @item HOST_BITS_PER_CHAR A C expression for the number of bits in @code{char} on the host machine. @findex HOST_BITS_PER_SHORT @item HOST_BITS_PER_SHORT A C expression for the number of bits in @code{short} on the host machine. @findex HOST_BITS_PER_INT @item HOST_BITS_PER_INT A C expression for the number of bits in @code{int} on the host machine. @findex HOST_BITS_PER_LONG @item HOST_BITS_PER_LONG A C expression for the number of bits in @code{long} on the host machine. @findex ONLY_INT_FIELDS @item ONLY_INT_FIELDS Define this macro to indicate that the host compiler only supports @code{int} bit fields, rather than other integral types, including @code{enum}, as do most C compilers. @findex OBSTACK_CHUNK_SIZE @item OBSTACK_CHUNK_SIZE A C expression for the size of ordinary obstack chunks. If you don't define this, a usually-reasonable default is used. @findex OBSTACK_CHUNK_ALLOC @item OBSTACK_CHUNK_ALLOC The function used to allocate obstack chunks. If you don't define this, @code{xmalloc} is used. @findex OBSTACK_CHUNK_FREE @item OBSTACK_CHUNK_FREE The function used to free obstack chunks. If you don't define this, @code{free} is used. @findex USE_C_ALLOCA @item USE_C_ALLOCA Define this macro to indicate that the compiler is running with the @code{alloca} implemented in C. This version of @code{alloca} can be found in the file @file{alloca.c}; to use it, you must also alter the @file{Makefile} variable @code{ALLOCA}. (This is done automatically for the systems on which we know it is needed.) If you do define this macro, you should probably do it as follows: @example #ifndef __GNUC__ #define USE_C_ALLOCA #else #define alloca __builtin_alloca #endif @end example @noindent so that when the compiler is compiled with GNU CC it uses the more efficient built-in @code{alloca} function. @item FUNCTION_CONVERSION_BUG @findex FUNCTION_CONVERSION_BUG Define this macro to indicate that the host compiler does not properly handle converting a function value to a pointer-to-function when it is used in an expression. @findex MULTIBYTE_CHARS @item MULTIBYTE_CHARS Define this macro to enable support for multibyte characters in the input to GNU CC. This requires that the host system support the ANSI C library functions for converting multibyte characters to wide characters. @findex POSIX @item POSIX Define this if your system is POSIX.1 compliant. @findex NO_SYS_SIGLIST @item NO_SYS_SIGLIST Define this if your system @emph{does not} provide the variable @code{sys_siglist}. @vindex sys_siglist Some systems do provide this variable, but with a different name such as @code{_sys_siglist}. On these systems, you can define @code{sys_siglist} as a macro which expands into the name actually provided. Autoconf normally defines @code{SYS_SIGLIST_DECLARED} when it finds a declaration of @code{sys_siglist} in the system header files. However, when you define @code{sys_siglist} to a different name autoconf will not automatically define @code{SYS_SIGLIST_DECLARED}. Therefore, if you define @code{sys_siglist}, you should also define @code{SYS_SIGLIST_DECLARED}. @findex USE_PROTOTYPES @item USE_PROTOTYPES Define this to be 1 if you know that the host compiler supports prototypes, even if it doesn't define __STDC__, or define it to be 0 if you do not want any prototypes used in compiling GNU CC. If @samp{USE_PROTOTYPES} is not defined, it will be determined automatically whether your compiler supports prototypes by checking if @samp{__STDC__} is defined. @findex NO_MD_PROTOTYPES @item NO_MD_PROTOTYPES Define this if you wish suppression of prototypes generated from the machine description file, but to use other prototypes within GNU CC. If @samp{USE_PROTOTYPES} is defined to be 0, or the host compiler does not support prototypes, this macro has no effect. @findex MD_CALL_PROTOTYPES @item MD_CALL_PROTOTYPES Define this if you wish to generate prototypes for the @code{gen_call} or @code{gen_call_value} functions generated from the machine description file. If @samp{USE_PROTOTYPES} is defined to be 0, or the host compiler does not support prototypes, or @samp{NO_MD_PROTOTYPES} is defined, this macro has no effect. As soon as all of the machine descriptions are modified to have the appropriate number of arguments, this macro will be removed. @findex PATH_SEPARATOR @item PATH_SEPARATOR Define this macro to be a C character constant representing the character used to separate components in paths. The default value is the colon character @findex DIR_SEPARATOR @item DIR_SEPARATOR If your system uses some character other than slash to separate directory names within a file specification, define this macro to be a C character constant specifying that character. When GNU CC displays file names, the character you specify will be used. GNU CC will test for both slash and the character you specify when parsing filenames. @findex OBJECT_SUFFIX @item OBJECT_SUFFIX Define this macro to be a C string representing the suffix for object files on your machine. If you do not define this macro, GNU CC will use @samp{.o} as the suffix for object files. @findex EXECUTABLE_SUFFIX @item EXECUTABLE_SUFFIX Define this macro to be a C string representing the suffix for executable files on your machine. If you do not define this macro, GNU CC will use the null string as the suffix for object files. @findex COLLECT_EXPORT_LIST @item COLLECT_EXPORT_LIST If defined, @code{collect2} will scan the individual object files specified on its command line and create an export list for the linker. Define this macro for systems like AIX, where the linker discards object files that are not referenced from @code{main} and uses export lists. @end table @findex bzero @findex bcmp In addition, configuration files for system V define @code{bcopy}, @code{bzero} and @code{bcmp} as aliases. Some files define @code{alloca} as a macro when compiled with GNU CC, in order to take advantage of the benefit of GNU CC's built-in @code{alloca}. @node Fragments @chapter Makefile Fragments @cindex makefile fragment When you configure GNU CC using the @file{configure} script (@pxref{Installation}), it will construct the file @file{Makefile} from the template file @file{Makefile.in}. When it does this, it will incorporate makefile fragment files from the @file{config} directory, named @file{t-@var{target}} and @file{x-@var{host}}. If these files do not exist, it means nothing needs to be added for a given target or host. @menu * Target Fragment:: Writing the @file{t-@var{target}} file. * Host Fragment:: Writing the @file{x-@var{host}} file. @end menu @node Target Fragment @section The Target Makefile Fragment @cindex target makefile fragment @cindex @file{t-@var{target}} The target makefile fragment, @file{t-@var{target}}, defines special target dependent variables and targets used in the @file{Makefile}: @table @code @findex LIBGCC1 @item LIBGCC1 The rule to use to build @file{libgcc1.a}. If your target does not need to use the functions in @file{libgcc1.a}, set this to empty. @xref{Interface}. @findex CROSS_LIBGCC1 @item CROSS_LIBGCC1 The rule to use to build @file{libgcc1.a} when building a cross compiler. If your target does not need to use the functions in @file{libgcc1.a}, set this to empty. @xref{Cross Runtime}. @findex LIBGCC2_CFLAGS @item LIBGCC2_CFLAGS Compiler flags to use when compiling @file{libgcc2.c}. @findex LIB2FUNCS_EXTRA @item LIB2FUNCS_EXTRA A list of source file names to be compiled or assembled and inserted into @file{libgcc.a}. @findex CRTSTUFF_T_CFLAGS @item CRTSTUFF_T_CFLAGS Special flags used when compiling @file{crtstuff.c}. @xref{Initialization}. @findex CRTSTUFF_T_CFLAGS_S @item CRTSTUFF_T_CFLAGS_S Special flags used when compiling @file{crtstuff.c} for shared linking. Used if you use @file{crtbeginS.o} and @file{crtendS.o} in @code{EXTRA-PARTS}. @xref{Initialization}. @findex MULTILIB_OPTIONS @item MULTILIB_OPTIONS For some targets, invoking GNU CC in different ways produces objects that can not be linked together. For example, for some targets GNU CC produces both big and little endian code. For these targets, you must arrange for multiple versions of @file{libgcc.a} to be compiled, one for each set of incompatible options. When GNU CC invokes the linker, it arranges to link in the right version of @file{libgcc.a}, based on the command line options used. The @code{MULTILIB_OPTIONS} macro lists the set of options for which special versions of @file{libgcc.a} must be built. Write options that are mutually incompatible side by side, separated by a slash. Write options that may be used together separated by a space. The build procedure will build all combinations of compatible options. For example, if you set @code{MULTILIB_OPTIONS} to @samp{m68000/m68020 msoft-float}, @file{Makefile} will build special versions of @file{libgcc.a} using the following sets of options: @samp{-m68000}, @samp{-m68020}, @samp{-msoft-float}, @samp{-m68000 -msoft-float}, and @samp{-m68020 -msoft-float}. @findex MULTILIB_DIRNAMES @item MULTILIB_DIRNAMES If @code{MULTILIB_OPTIONS} is used, this variable specifies the directory names that should be used to hold the various libraries. Write one element in @code{MULTILIB_DIRNAMES} for each element in @code{MULTILIB_OPTIONS}. If @code{MULTILIB_DIRNAMES} is not used, the default value will be @code{MULTILIB_OPTIONS}, with all slashes treated as spaces. For example, if @code{MULTILIB_OPTIONS} is set to @samp{m68000/m68020 msoft-float}, then the default value of @code{MULTILIB_DIRNAMES} is @samp{m68000 m68020 msoft-float}. You may specify a different value if you desire a different set of directory names. @findex MULTILIB_MATCHES @item MULTILIB_MATCHES Sometimes the same option may be written in two different ways. If an option is listed in @code{MULTILIB_OPTIONS}, GNU CC needs to know about any synonyms. In that case, set @code{MULTILIB_MATCHES} to a list of items of the form @samp{option=option} to describe all relevant synonyms. For example, @samp{m68000=mc68000 m68020=mc68020}. @findex MULTILIB_EXCEPTIONS @item MULTILIB_EXCEPTIONS Sometimes when there are multiple sets of @code{MULTILIB_OPTIONS} being specified, there are combinations that should not be built. In that case, set @code{MULTILIB_EXCEPTIONS} to be all of the switch exceptions in shell case syntax that should not be built. For example, in the PowerPC embedded ABI support, it was not desirable to build libraries that compiled with the @samp{-mcall-aixdesc} option and either of the @samp{-mcall-aixdesc} or @samp{-mlittle} options at the same time, and therefore @code{MULTILIB_EXCEPTIONS} is set to @code{*mrelocatable/*mcall-aixdesc* *mlittle/*mcall-aixdesc*}. @findex MULTILIB_EXTRA_OPTS @item MULTILIB_EXTRA_OPTS Sometimes it is desirable that when building multiple versions of @file{libgcc.a} certain options should always be passed on to the compiler. In that case, set @code{MULTILIB_EXTRA_OPTS} to be the list of options to be used for all builds. @end table @node Host Fragment @section The Host Makefile Fragment @cindex host makefile fragment @cindex @file{x-@var{host}} The host makefile fragment, @file{x-@var{host}}, defines special host dependent variables and targets used in the @file{Makefile}: @table @code @findex CC @item CC The compiler to use when building the first stage. @findex CLIB @item CLIB Additional host libraries to link with. @findex OLDCC @item OLDCC The compiler to use when building @file{libgcc1.a} for a native compilation. @findex OLDAR @item OLDAR The version of @code{ar} to use when building @file{libgcc1.a} for a native compilation. @findex INSTALL @item INSTALL The install program to use. @end table @node Funding @unnumbered Funding Free Software If you want to have more free software a few years from now, it makes sense for you to help encourage people to contribute funds for its development. The most effective approach known is to encourage commercial redistributors to donate. Users of free software systems can boost the pace of development by encouraging for-a-fee distributors to donate part of their selling price to free software developers---the Free Software Foundation, and others. The way to convince distributors to do this is to demand it and expect it from them. So when you compare distributors, judge them partly by how much they give to free software development. Show distributors they must compete to be the one who gives the most. To make this approach work, you must insist on numbers that you can compare, such as, ``We will donate ten dollars to the Frobnitz project for each disk sold.'' Don't be satisfied with a vague promise, such as ``A portion of the profits are donated,'' since it doesn't give a basis for comparison. Even a precise fraction ``of the profits from this disk'' is not very meaningful, since creative accounting and unrelated business decisions can greatly alter what fraction of the sales price counts as profit. If the price you pay is $50, ten percent of the profit is probably less than a dollar; it might be a few cents, or nothing at all. Some redistributors do development work themselves. This is useful too; but to keep everyone honest, you need to inquire how much they do, and what kind. Some kinds of development make much more long-term difference than others. For example, maintaining a separate version of a program contributes very little; maintaining the standard version of a program for the whole community contributes much. Easy new ports contribute little, since someone else would surely do them; difficult ports such as adding a new CPU to the GNU C compiler contribute more; major new features or packages contribute the most. By establishing the idea that supporting further development is ``the proper thing to do'' when distributing free software for a fee, we can assure a steady flow of resources into making more free software. @display Copyright (C) 1994 Free Software Foundation, Inc. Verbatim copying and redistribution of this section is permitted without royalty; alteration is not permitted. @end display @node GNU/Linux @unnumbered Linux and the GNU Project Many computer users run a modified version of the GNU system every day, without realizing it. Through a peculiar turn of events, the version of GNU which is widely used today is more often known as ``Linux'', and many users are not aware of the extent of its connection with the GNU Project. There really is a Linux; it is a kernel, and these people are using it. But you can't use a kernel by itself; a kernel is useful only as part of a whole system. The system in which Linux is typically used is a modified variant of the GNU system---in other words, a Linux-based GNU system. Many users are not fully aware of the distinction between the kernel, which is Linux, and the whole system, which they also call ``Linux''. The ambiguous use of the name doesn't promote understanding. Programmers generally know that Linux is a kernel. But since they have generally heard the whole system called ``Linux'' as well, they often envisage a history which fits that name. For example, many believe that once Linus Torvalds finished writing the kernel, his friends looked around for other free software, and for no particular reason most everything necessary to make a Unix-like system was already available. What they found was no accident---it was the GNU system. The available free software added up to a complete system because the GNU Project had been working since 1984 to make one. The GNU Manifesto had set forth the goal of developing a free Unix-like system, called GNU. By the time Linux was written, the system was almost finished. Most free software projects have the goal of developing a particular program for a particular job. For example, Linus Torvalds set out to write a Unix-like kernel (Linux); Donald Knuth set out to write a text formatter (TeX); Bob Scheifler set out to develop a window system (X Windows). It's natural to measure the contribution of this kind of project by specific programs that came from the project. If we tried to measure the GNU Project's contribution in this way, what would we conclude? One CD-ROM vendor found that in their ``Linux distribution'', GNU software was the largest single contingent, around 28% of the total source code, and this included some of the essential major components without which there could be no system. Linux itself was about 3%. So if you were going to pick a name for the system based on who wrote the programs in the system, the most appropriate single choice would be ``GNU''. But we don't think that is the right way to consider the question. The GNU Project was not, is not, a project to develop specific software packages. It was not a project to develop a C compiler, although we did. It was not a project to develop a text editor, although we developed one. The GNU Project's aim was to develop @emph{a complete free Unix-like system}. Many people have made major contributions to the free software in the system, and they all deserve credit. But the reason it is @emph{a system}---and not just a collection of useful programs---is because the GNU Project set out to make it one. We wrote the programs that were needed to make a @emph{complete} free system. We wrote essential but unexciting major components, such as the assembler and linker, because you can't have a system without them. A complete system needs more than just programming tools, so we wrote other components as well, such as the Bourne Again SHell, the PostScript interpreter Ghostscript, and the GNU C library. By the early 90s we had put together the whole system aside from the kernel (and we were also working on a kernel, the GNU Hurd, which runs on top of Mach). Developing this kernel has been a lot harder than we expected, and we are still working on finishing it. Fortunately, you don't have to wait for it, because Linux is working now. When Linus Torvalds wrote Linux, he filled the last major gap. People could then put Linux together with the GNU system to make a complete free system: a Linux-based GNU system (or GNU/Linux system, for short). Putting them together sounds simple, but it was not a trivial job. The GNU C library (called glibc for short) needed substantial changes. Integrating a complete system as a distribution that would work ``out of the box'' was a big job, too. It required addressing the issue of how to install and boot the system---a problem we had not tackled, because we hadn't yet reached that point. The people who developed the various system distributions made a substantial contribution. The GNU Project supports GNU/Linux systems as well as @emph{the} GNU system---even with funds. We funded the rewriting of the Linux-related extensions to the GNU C library, so that now they are well integrated, and the newest GNU/Linux systems use the current library release with no changes. We also funded an early stage of the development of Debian GNU/Linux. We use Linux-based GNU systems today for most of our work, and we hope you use them too. But please don't confuse the public by using the name ``Linux'' ambiguously. Linux is the kernel, one of the essential major components of the system. The system as a whole is more or less the GNU system. @node Copying @unnumbered GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE @center Version 2, June 1991 @display Copyright @copyright{} 1989, 1991 Free Software Foundation, Inc. 59 Temple Place - Suite 330, Boston, MA 02111-1307, USA Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this license document, but changing it is not allowed. @end display @unnumberedsec Preamble The licenses for most software are designed to take away your freedom to share and change it. By contrast, the GNU General Public License is intended to guarantee your freedom to share and change free software---to make sure the software is free for all its users. This General Public License applies to most of the Free Software Foundation's software and to any other program whose authors commit to using it. (Some other Free Software Foundation software is covered by the GNU Library General Public License instead.) You can apply it to your programs, too. When we speak of free software, we are referring to freedom, not price. Our General Public Licenses are designed to make sure that you have the freedom to distribute copies of free software (and charge for this service if you wish), that you receive source code or can get it if you want it, that you can change the software or use pieces of it in new free programs; and that you know you can do these things. To protect your rights, we need to make restrictions that forbid anyone to deny you these rights or to ask you to surrender the rights. These restrictions translate to certain responsibilities for you if you distribute copies of the software, or if you modify it. For example, if you distribute copies of such a program, whether gratis or for a fee, you must give the recipients all the rights that you have. You must make sure that they, too, receive or can get the source code. And you must show them these terms so they know their rights. We protect your rights with two steps: (1) copyright the software, and (2) offer you this license which gives you legal permission to copy, distribute and/or modify the software. Also, for each author's protection and ours, we want to make certain that everyone understands that there is no warranty for this free software. If the software is modified by someone else and passed on, we want its recipients to know that what they have is not the original, so that any problems introduced by others will not reflect on the original authors' reputations. Finally, any free program is threatened constantly by software patents. We wish to avoid the danger that redistributors of a free program will individually obtain patent licenses, in effect making the program proprietary. To prevent this, we have made it clear that any patent must be licensed for everyone's free use or not licensed at all. The precise terms and conditions for copying, distribution and modification follow. @iftex @unnumberedsec TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR COPYING, DISTRIBUTION AND MODIFICATION @end iftex @ifinfo @center TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR COPYING, DISTRIBUTION AND MODIFICATION @end ifinfo @enumerate 0 @item This License applies to any program or other work which contains a notice placed by the copyright holder saying it may be distributed under the terms of this General Public License. The ``Program'', below, refers to any such program or work, and a ``work based on the Program'' means either the Program or any derivative work under copyright law: that is to say, a work containing the Program or a portion of it, either verbatim or with modifications and/or translated into another language. (Hereinafter, translation is included without limitation in the term ``modification''.) Each licensee is addressed as ``you''. Activities other than copying, distribution and modification are not covered by this License; they are outside its scope. The act of running the Program is not restricted, and the output from the Program is covered only if its contents constitute a work based on the Program (independent of having been made by running the Program). Whether that is true depends on what the Program does. @item You may copy and distribute verbatim copies of the Program's source code as you receive it, in any medium, provided that you conspicuously and appropriately publish on each copy an appropriate copyright notice and disclaimer of warranty; keep intact all the notices that refer to this License and to the absence of any warranty; and give any other recipients of the Program a copy of this License along with the Program. You may charge a fee for the physical act of transferring a copy, and you may at your option offer warranty protection in exchange for a fee. @item You may modify your copy or copies of the Program or any portion of it, thus forming a work based on the Program, and copy and distribute such modifications or work under the terms of Section 1 above, provided that you also meet all of these conditions: @enumerate a @item You must cause the modified files to carry prominent notices stating that you changed the files and the date of any change. @item You must cause any work that you distribute or publish, that in whole or in part contains or is derived from the Program or any part thereof, to be licensed as a whole at no charge to all third parties under the terms of this License. @item If the modified program normally reads commands interactively when run, you must cause it, when started running for such interactive use in the most ordinary way, to print or display an announcement including an appropriate copyright notice and a notice that there is no warranty (or else, saying that you provide a warranty) and that users may redistribute the program under these conditions, and telling the user how to view a copy of this License. (Exception: if the Program itself is interactive but does not normally print such an announcement, your work based on the Program is not required to print an announcement.) @end enumerate These requirements apply to the modified work as a whole. If identifiable sections of that work are not derived from the Program, and can be reasonably considered independent and separate works in themselves, then this License, and its terms, do not apply to those sections when you distribute them as separate works. But when you distribute the same sections as part of a whole which is a work based on the Program, the distribution of the whole must be on the terms of this License, whose permissions for other licensees extend to the entire whole, and thus to each and every part regardless of who wrote it. Thus, it is not the intent of this section to claim rights or contest your rights to work written entirely by you; rather, the intent is to exercise the right to control the distribution of derivative or collective works based on the Program. In addition, mere aggregation of another work not based on the Program with the Program (or with a work based on the Program) on a volume of a storage or distribution medium does not bring the other work under the scope of this License. @item You may copy and distribute the Program (or a work based on it, under Section 2) in object code or executable form under the terms of Sections 1 and 2 above provided that you also do one of the following: @enumerate a @item Accompany it with the complete corresponding machine-readable source code, which must be distributed under the terms of Sections 1 and 2 above on a medium customarily used for software interchange; or, @item Accompany it with a written offer, valid for at least three years, to give any third party, for a charge no more than your cost of physically performing source distribution, a complete machine-readable copy of the corresponding source code, to be distributed under the terms of Sections 1 and 2 above on a medium customarily used for software interchange; or, @item Accompany it with the information you received as to the offer to distribute corresponding source code. (This alternative is allowed only for noncommercial distribution and only if you received the program in object code or executable form with such an offer, in accord with Subsection b above.) @end enumerate The source code for a work means the preferred form of the work for making modifications to it. For an executable work, complete source code means all the source code for all modules it contains, plus any associated interface definition files, plus the scripts used to control compilation and installation of the executable. However, as a special exception, the source code distributed need not include anything that is normally distributed (in either source or binary form) with the major components (compiler, kernel, and so on) of the operating system on which the executable runs, unless that component itself accompanies the executable. If distribution of executable or object code is made by offering access to copy from a designated place, then offering equivalent access to copy the source code from the same place counts as distribution of the source code, even though third parties are not compelled to copy the source along with the object code. @item You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Program except as expressly provided under this License. Any attempt otherwise to copy, modify, sublicense or distribute the Program is void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this License. However, parties who have received copies, or rights, from you under this License will not have their licenses terminated so long as such parties remain in full compliance. @item You are not required to accept this License, since you have not signed it. However, nothing else grants you permission to modify or distribute the Program or its derivative works. These actions are prohibited by law if you do not accept this License. Therefore, by modifying or distributing the Program (or any work based on the Program), you indicate your acceptance of this License to do so, and all its terms and conditions for copying, distributing or modifying the Program or works based on it. @item Each time you redistribute the Program (or any work based on the Program), the recipient automatically receives a license from the original licensor to copy, distribute or modify the Program subject to these terms and conditions. You may not impose any further restrictions on the recipients' exercise of the rights granted herein. You are not responsible for enforcing compliance by third parties to this License. @item If, as a consequence of a court judgment or allegation of patent infringement or for any other reason (not limited to patent issues), conditions are imposed on you (whether by court order, agreement or otherwise) that contradict the conditions of this License, they do not excuse you from the conditions of this License. If you cannot distribute so as to satisfy simultaneously your obligations under this License and any other pertinent obligations, then as a consequence you may not distribute the Program at all. For example, if a patent license would not permit royalty-free redistribution of the Program by all those who receive copies directly or indirectly through you, then the only way you could satisfy both it and this License would be to refrain entirely from distribution of the Program. If any portion of this section is held invalid or unenforceable under any particular circumstance, the balance of the section is intended to apply and the section as a whole is intended to apply in other circumstances. It is not the purpose of this section to induce you to infringe any patents or other property right claims or to contest validity of any such claims; this section has the sole purpose of protecting the integrity of the free software distribution system, which is implemented by public license practices. Many people have made generous contributions to the wide range of software distributed through that system in reliance on consistent application of that system; it is up to the author/donor to decide if he or she is willing to distribute software through any other system and a licensee cannot impose that choice. This section is intended to make thoroughly clear what is believed to be a consequence of the rest of this License. @item If the distribution and/or use of the Program is restricted in certain countries either by patents or by copyrighted interfaces, the original copyright holder who places the Program under this License may add an explicit geographical distribution limitation excluding those countries, so that distribution is permitted only in or among countries not thus excluded. In such case, this License incorporates the limitation as if written in the body of this License. @item The Free Software Foundation may publish revised and/or new versions of the General Public License from time to time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns. Each version is given a distinguishing version number. If the Program specifies a version number of this License which applies to it and ``any later version'', you have the option of following the terms and conditions either of that version or of any later version published by the Free Software Foundation. If the Program does not specify a version number of this License, you may choose any version ever published by the Free Software Foundation. @item If you wish to incorporate parts of the Program into other free programs whose distribution conditions are different, write to the author to ask for permission. For software which is copyrighted by the Free Software Foundation, write to the Free Software Foundation; we sometimes make exceptions for this. Our decision will be guided by the two goals of preserving the free status of all derivatives of our free software and of promoting the sharing and reuse of software generally. @iftex @heading NO WARRANTY @end iftex @ifinfo @center NO WARRANTY @end ifinfo @item BECAUSE THE PROGRAM IS LICENSED FREE OF CHARGE, THERE IS NO WARRANTY FOR THE PROGRAM, TO THE EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE LAW. EXCEPT WHEN OTHERWISE STATED IN WRITING THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND/OR OTHER PARTIES PROVIDE THE PROGRAM ``AS IS'' WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EITHER EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. THE ENTIRE RISK AS TO THE QUALITY AND PERFORMANCE OF THE PROGRAM IS WITH YOU. SHOULD THE PROGRAM PROVE DEFECTIVE, YOU ASSUME THE COST OF ALL NECESSARY SERVICING, REPAIR OR CORRECTION. @item IN NO EVENT UNLESS REQUIRED BY APPLICABLE LAW OR AGREED TO IN WRITING WILL ANY COPYRIGHT HOLDER, OR ANY OTHER PARTY WHO MAY MODIFY AND/OR REDISTRIBUTE THE PROGRAM AS PERMITTED ABOVE, BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR DAMAGES, INCLUDING ANY GENERAL, SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES ARISING OUT OF THE USE OR INABILITY TO USE THE PROGRAM (INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO LOSS OF DATA OR DATA BEING RENDERED INACCURATE OR LOSSES SUSTAINED BY YOU OR THIRD PARTIES OR A FAILURE OF THE PROGRAM TO OPERATE WITH ANY OTHER PROGRAMS), EVEN IF SUCH HOLDER OR OTHER PARTY HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES. @end enumerate @iftex @heading END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS @end iftex @ifinfo @center END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS @end ifinfo @page @unnumberedsec How to Apply These Terms to Your New Programs If you develop a new program, and you want it to be of the greatest possible use to the public, the best way to achieve this is to make it free software which everyone can redistribute and change under these terms. To do so, attach the following notices to the program. It is safest to attach them to the start of each source file to most effectively convey the exclusion of warranty; and each file should have at least the ``copyright'' line and a pointer to where the full notice is found. @smallexample @var{one line to give the program's name and a brief idea of what it does.} Copyright (C) 19@var{yy} @var{name of author} This program is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by the Free Software Foundation; either version 2 of the License, or (at your option) any later version. This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the GNU General Public License for more details. You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License along with this program; if not, write to the Free Software Foundation, Inc., 59 Temple Place - Suite 330, Boston, MA 02111-1307, USA. @end smallexample Also add information on how to contact you by electronic and paper mail. If the program is interactive, make it output a short notice like this when it starts in an interactive mode: @smallexample Gnomovision version 69, Copyright (C) 19@var{yy} @var{name of author} Gnomovision comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY; for details type `show w'. This is free software, and you are welcome to redistribute it under certain conditions; type `show c' for details. @end smallexample The hypothetical commands @samp{show w} and @samp{show c} should show the appropriate parts of the General Public License. Of course, the commands you use may be called something other than @samp{show w} and @samp{show c}; they could even be mouse-clicks or menu items---whatever suits your program. You should also get your employer (if you work as a programmer) or your school, if any, to sign a ``copyright disclaimer'' for the program, if necessary. Here is a sample; alter the names: @smallexample Yoyodyne, Inc., hereby disclaims all copyright interest in the program `Gnomovision' (which makes passes at compilers) written by James Hacker. @var{signature of Ty Coon}, 1 April 1989 Ty Coon, President of Vice @end smallexample This General Public License does not permit incorporating your program into proprietary programs. If your program is a subroutine library, you may consider it more useful to permit linking proprietary applications with the library. If this is what you want to do, use the GNU Library General Public License instead of this License. @node Contributors @unnumbered Contributors to GNU CC @cindex contributors In addition to Richard Stallman, several people have written parts of GNU CC. @itemize @bullet @item The idea of using RTL and some of the optimization ideas came from the program PO written at the University of Arizona by Jack Davidson and Christopher Fraser. See ``Register Allocation and Exhaustive Peephole Optimization'', Software Practice and Experience 14 (9), Sept. 1984, 857-866. @item Paul Rubin wrote most of the preprocessor. @item Leonard Tower wrote parts of the parser, RTL generator, and RTL definitions, and of the Vax machine description. @item Ted Lemon wrote parts of the RTL reader and printer. @item Jim Wilson implemented loop strength reduction and some other loop optimizations. @item Nobuyuki Hikichi of Software Research Associates, Tokyo, contributed the support for the Sony NEWS machine. @item Charles LaBrec contributed the support for the Integrated Solutions 68020 system. @item Michael Tiemann of Cygnus Support wrote the front end for C++, as well as the support for inline functions and instruction scheduling. Also the descriptions of the National Semiconductor 32000 series cpu, the SPARC cpu and part of the Motorola 88000 cpu. @item Gerald Baumgartner added the signature extension to the C++ front-end. @item Jan Stein of the Chalmers Computer Society provided support for Genix, as well as part of the 32000 machine description. @item Randy Smith finished the Sun FPA support. @item Robert Brown implemented the support for Encore 32000 systems. @item David Kashtan of SRI adapted GNU CC to VMS. @item Alex Crain provided changes for the 3b1. @item Greg Satz and Chris Hanson assisted in making GNU CC work on HP-UX for the 9000 series 300. @item William Schelter did most of the work on the Intel 80386 support. @item Christopher Smith did the port for Convex machines. @item Paul Petersen wrote the machine description for the Alliant FX/8. @item Dario Dariol contributed the four varieties of sample programs that print a copy of their source. @item Alain Lichnewsky ported GNU CC to the Mips cpu. @item Devon Bowen, Dale Wiles and Kevin Zachmann ported GNU CC to the Tahoe. @item Jonathan Stone wrote the machine description for the Pyramid computer. @item Gary Miller ported GNU CC to Charles River Data Systems machines. @item Richard Kenner of the New York University Ultracomputer Research Laboratory wrote the machine descriptions for the AMD 29000, the DEC Alpha, the IBM RT PC, and the IBM RS/6000 as well as the support for instruction attributes. He also made changes to better support RISC processors including changes to common subexpression elimination, strength reduction, function calling sequence handling, and condition code support, in addition to generalizing the code for frame pointer elimination. @item Richard Kenner and Michael Tiemann jointly developed reorg.c, the delay slot scheduler. @item Mike Meissner and Tom Wood of Data General finished the port to the Motorola 88000. @item Masanobu Yuhara of Fujitsu Laboratories implemented the machine description for the Tron architecture (specifically, the Gmicro). @item NeXT, Inc.@: donated the front end that supports the Objective C language. @c We need to be careful to make it clear that "Objective C" @c is the name of a language, not that of a program or product. @item James van Artsdalen wrote the code that makes efficient use of the Intel 80387 register stack. @item Mike Meissner at the Open Software Foundation finished the port to the MIPS cpu, including adding ECOFF debug support, and worked on the Intel port for the Intel 80386 cpu. Later at Cygnus Support, he worked on the rs6000 and PowerPC ports. @item Ron Guilmette implemented the @code{protoize} and @code{unprotoize} tools, the support for Dwarf symbolic debugging information, and much of the support for System V Release 4. He has also worked heavily on the Intel 386 and 860 support. @item Torbjorn Granlund implemented multiply- and divide-by-constant optimization, improved long long support, and improved leaf function register allocation. @item Mike Stump implemented the support for Elxsi 64 bit CPU. @item John Wehle added the machine description for the Western Electric 32000 processor used in several 3b series machines (no relation to the National Semiconductor 32000 processor). @ignore @c These features aren't advertised yet, since they don't fully work. @item Analog Devices helped implement the support for complex data types and iterators. @end ignore @item Holger Teutsch provided the support for the Clipper cpu. @item Kresten Krab Thorup wrote the run time support for the Objective C language. @item Stephen Moshier contributed the floating point emulator that assists in cross-compilation and permits support for floating point numbers wider than 64 bits. @item David Edelsohn contributed the changes to RS/6000 port to make it support the PowerPC and POWER2 architectures. @item Steve Chamberlain wrote the support for the Hitachi SH processor. @item Peter Schauer wrote the code to allow debugging to work on the Alpha. @item Oliver M. Kellogg of Deutsche Aerospace contributed the port to the MIL-STD-1750A. @item Michael K. Gschwind contributed the port to the PDP-11. @item David Reese of Sun Microsystems contributed to the Solaris on PowerPC port. @end itemize @node Index @unnumbered Index @end ifset @ifclear INTERNALS @node Index @unnumbered Index @end ifclear @printindex cp @summarycontents @contents @bye